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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
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ENGLISH
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS
SIMPLIFIED.
DESIGNED FOR USE IN COMMON SCHOOLS, HIGH
SCHOOLS, AND NORMAL SCHOOLS.
•
MRS. M/D. L. HAYNIE,
Professor of Modern Languages, Illinois State Normal University.
CHICAGO r
GEO. SHERWOOD & CO
V
-f£m>
Copyright, 1884,
By Geo. Sherwood & Co.
Chicago.
To
MY PUPILS,
who ake now in america, europe, and the
isles of the sea,
This Book is Dedicated
BY THE AUTHORESS,
as a token of affectionate remembrance,
for their unvarying kindness, and full
appreciation of her labors
AMONG THEM.
PREFACE
This book appears before the public, in answer to
many calls.
For years my pupils, and, also, teachers whom I have
never known personally, have urged me to embody my
teaching in book form, so that they could put into the
hands of their own pupils, a text-book, attractive, easy of
comprehension, and at the same time scholarly.
Cheerfully, but not without labor, the task has been
performed, and the book is now sent forth on its mission,
without a misgiving of its success, wherever it may happen
to find a welcome.
Syntax and Analysis are treated together, as they are
so closely related, it is difficult to treat them separately.
In simplifying these difficult subjects, no element has
been omitted, but into the work have entered deep
thought, and the result of the careful and extended re-
search of years.
A very long experience in teaching modern languages,
has enabled me to understand the difficulties to be met
with at every step, when undertaking the study of, even
the mother-tongue, and from this experience has resulted
the plan of this work.
Step by step the pupil is led from the simple to the
abstruse.
5
PREFACE.
TIh> simple sentence is treated in full; first, without
sjij modifier, and afterwards, with the modifiers, in me-
thodioal order, before the complex sentence is introduced;
and tin- complex Bentenoe is exhaustively treated, before
impound Bentenoe is introduced.
Abundant and full analyses are given as models; and
no kind <>!' sentence is omitfo d.
Tlir usr> of tin' verb Bey tin' copulative verbs, and
transitive and intransitive verbs, arc fully explained, but
no special reference is made to auxiliary verbs, as they are
fully treated of in my Etymology, soon to be published.
The hook should not be put into the hands of any who
have not a fair knowledge of Etymology; for, in order to
construct sentences, a knowledge of words and their uses
--a rv.
Thanks are due to the grammars in whose companion-
ship 1 have lived from my childhood; and to the kind
friends win.-,, commendatory words have encouraged me
all along the way.
Martha I). L. IIavnik.
Illiti" nial University,
M •!> 22, J 684.
CONTENTS.
Page
Syntax, — Definitions and Explanations, - - 9-12
Elements op the Sentence ; Sentences Classified by
use and by structure, - - - - 13-18
Analysis Defined, ------ 19
The Simple Sentence in all its Forms, and with all
the Modifiers Belonging to it, - - - 19-91
Rules of Syntax, ------ 92-94
Rules of Analysis, ----- 94-96
The Clause Element, ----- 97-105
Complex Sentences. ----- 105-202
Adjective Clauses, ----- 106-126
Objective Clauses, -^ 127-135
Adverbial Clauses, ----- 136-202
Abridged Propositions, - 202-208
Compound Sentences, .... - 209-243
Condensed or Partially Compound Sentences, - 243-248
Idiomatic Constructions, ----- 149-150
Models for Analysis, Outline Analysis, and Exer-
cise upon Exclamatory Sentences, - - 251-271
SYNTAX.
The division of grammar which treats of sen-
tence-making is called Syntax.
The word Syntax is derived from two Greek words,
syn, together, and taxis, arrangement.
Sentences are composed of words, therefore :
Syntax is the correct use, and the methodical ar-
rangement of words in the construction of sentences.
False Syntax is the incorrect use, or the faulty
arrangement of words in the construction of a sentence.
A sentence is the expression of a thought in
words.
A thought is a collection of ideas making complete
sense in the mind, before it is expressed.
An idea is a mental picture.
Every sentence must contain at least one propo-
sition.
A proposition consists of a combination of words,
forming a statement.
In a proposition, two terms are necessary:
1.— Subject.
2.— Predicate.
Therefore : A proposition is the combination of a sub-
ject and a predicate.
(9)
10 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
The Subject of a proposition is the word, or words,
used to represent that of which something is said or af-
firmed.
The Predicate of a proposition is the word, or
toords, used to represent that which is said or affirmed of
the subject.
Kx.—Rain falls.
In this proposition, the word llain represents that
about which something is said or affirmed, therefore it is
the subject, or first term of the proposition.
The subject must be a noun or a pronoun, or so?ne-
thing used as such.
A symbol, a figure, a letter, a phrase or a
clause, may be used to represent that about which some-
thing is said, and thus become the subject of a proposition.
A phrase (as a grammatical term), consists of a prep-
osition and its object, or an infinitive, with the sign to,
either expressed or understood.
A clause is the combination of a subject and a predi-
cate (a proposition) used as an element of a sentence.
Ex. 1. — Mary sings.
2. — I£e reads.
3. (- is the sign of Addition.
4. — 7 is a figure.
5. — H is a letter.
6 — To retire from business is his intention.
7. — That you are so careless surprises me.
There are many complete sentences which contain
neither a noun nor & pronoun.
Such sentences have for their subject, either a phrase or
clause, used substantively.
SYNTAX. 1 1
Ex. — To submit now would be humiliating.
That to live happily is not impossible 1ms
been proved positively, and very frequently.
The simple or grammatical subject is the
word, phrase or clause taken alone.
The complex or logical subject is the icord,
phrase or clause taken with the modifiers.
In the following sentence :
An industrious, prudent boy will succeed, the word boy
is the simple or grammatical subject, and the words, An
industrious, prudent boy is the complex or logical subject.
The Predicate must contain a verb. No other part of
speech can take its place ; for no other part of speech has
the power to make an assertion.
It is frequently the case, however, that other words,
called attributes of the subject, combine with the verb,
to form the grammatical predicate. (See Uses of
the Verb Be, page 19.)
The simple or grammatical predicate is the
verb, or the verb and the attribute taken alone.
The complex or logical predicate is the simple
predicate taken with its modifiers.
Ex. — The redbreast loves to build and warble there. —
Gray.
In this sentence loves, is the simple predicate ; and
loves to build and warble there, is the complex or logical
predicate.
A finite verb must be used in the predicate, as neither
the infinitive nor the participle has the power to make an
12 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Both the infinitive and the participle may be used,
however, as attributes.
Ex. — He is to be educated in Boston.
In this sentence is, is the finite verb, used to make the
assertion ; to be educated is the passive infinitive of the
verb educate, used as attribute. (See Infinitive used as
attribute.)
The participle is used as a verbal attribute in the
progressive form of the verb, and in the perfect tenses.
Ex. — The sun is vising. The sun has risen*
ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.
The elements of a sentence are the words, phrases or
clauses of which it is composed.
The elements of a sentence are divided into:
1.— Principal elements.
2. — Subordinate elements.
The principal elements are the subject and the
predicate.
The subject and the predicate are called principal ele-
ments, because no sentence can be formed without them ;
and all subordinate elements depend upon them.
The subordinate elements are those which de-
pend upon and modify the principal elements.
The subordinate elements are:
1 — The Adjective element.
2. — The Objective elememt.
3. — The Adverbial element.
All the elements are found in the following sentence:
And little footsteps lightly print the ground. — Gray.
ELEMENTS OP THE SENTENCE. 13
The elements which enter into the construction of sen-
tences are, inform, — words, phrases, or clauses.
Each of these forms may be used as follows:
1. — Subject,
2. — Predicate,
3. — Adjective Element.
4. — Objective Element.
5. — Adverbial Element.
Word element — Subject and predicate. Bells ring
Phrase element — Subject and predicate. To be is
to exist.
Clause element, as subject. That you are mistaken
is certain.
Clause element, as predicate nominative. The
cause of his leaving was, that he was disappointed.
Note. — The subordinate elements, also, may take any of these
forms.
The toord element is a single word used to express an
idea, without the aid of a relation word. It matters not
how many modifiers it may have, it should be called a word
element.
The Phrase element is a verb in the infinitive
mode, or a preposition and its object.
Sometimes the sign of the infinitive, the particle to, is
omitted, and sometimes the preposition belonging1 to the
phrase is omitted, but in both cases the element should be
called a phrase element.
Note. — The term phrase is usually applied to any group of
words which does not contain a Unite verb ; but, in the analysis of
sentences, the term phrase should be restricted to the forms spoken of
above.
Independent elements are certain words or ex-
14 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
pressions which have no grammatical relation to any sen-
tence, or any part of a sentence, though they usually accom-
pany a sentence.
They are used often in exclamations, and in conversa-
tion.
The principal independent elements consist of expres-
sions of emotion' the most of such are always incomplete: —
Oh how beautiful !
Oh ! but to breathe the breath
Of the cowslip and primrose sweet! — Hood.
The nominative independent by address .• —
Adam, where art thou! — Bible.
The Adverbs, now, well, why:
N~ow, what have you done!
Well, can it be true?
Why, you said so.
And the Interjections . —
Oh! Ah! Alas! What! etc.
Other independent elements will be given hereafter.
Independent elements should be separated from the
sentence by a comma.
A word, phrase or clause added to an element to vary
its meaning is called a modifier.
A simple element is one which is not modified.
Ex. — Hoys run.
A complex element is a modified element, or an
element taken with its modifier, or modifiers.
Ex. — Three boys run fast.
The basis of an element is the element which is modi-
SENTENCES CLASSIFIED BY THEIR USE. 15
fied; boys is the basis of three boys ; and run is the basis
of run fast.
A compound element is one which consists of two
or more similar elements, coOrdinately united by conjun .-
tions, either expressed or understood.
Ex..— Apples, peaches and pears are in market now.
Coordinate elements do not modify each other, or
one another, but when combined they may modify some
other element.
Ex. — Clear and beautiful skies looked down smilingly
upon the landscape.
In this sentence clear and beautiful are coordinate
elements, making a compound adjective element ; but
subordinate to skies, which they modify.
CLASSES OF SENTENCES.
SENTENCES CLASSIFIED BY THETR USE.
Thouf/ht may be expressed by means of words, in
four different ways j there are, therefore, four different
kinds of sentences:
1.— Declarative,
2 . — Inte rrogative.
3. — Imperative.
±.—JExclamative.
A Declarative sentence is one that makes an
affirmation or a denial.
Ex. — The hunters returned yesterday.
The hunters did not return yesterday.
16 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
The hunters may return to-morrow.
If the hunters return to-morrow, they will supply us
'with game for the feast.
An Interrogative sentence is used to ask a ques-
tion.
Ex. — Have you been to Crystal Lake to-day?
Is it time to go home?
Interrogative sentences are not always used to ask for
information.
They are sometimes used for rhetorical effect ; and they
are then called questions of appeal.
Ex. — Is there not a time appointed unto man to die?
There is.
Shall we submit to the oppression of a tyrant ? We
shall not.
When the question of appeal is negative, an affirmative
answer is expected ; and when it is affirmative, a negative
answer is expected, as will be seen above.
An Imperative sentence is used to express a
command, an entreaty, a petition, or a request.
Ex. — Give ear, 0 my people, to my law.
Maintain the ground where thou standest.
Note. — The relative position of the speaker and the one spoken t<>
decides lohether the imperative sentence is a command, an entreaty, a
petition, or a request.
An E.rcl 'amative, or as it is commonly called, an
exclamatovu sentence, is one used to express some
strong emotion of pain, pleasure, astonishment, approba-
tion, disapprobation, etc.
Exclamative sentences are often mere fragments, not
admitting of analysis.
SENTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE. 17
Ex. — Impossible!
What a lovely day!
How terrible!
Such expressions are of the nature of the Interjection,
therefore an exclamation point should be placed after
them.
When two or more different kinds are united to form
one sentence, it is called a mixed sentence.
Ex. — Tell me how much money you want, and I will
give it to you.
He said to me, do you know where the paper is pub-
lished ?
The first one of the sentences consists of an imperative
proposition, and a declarative proposition ; and the second,
of a declarative proposition, and an interrogative proposi-
tion. Both are mixed sentences.
SENTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO
STRUCTURE.
Sentences are classified according to their structure
into:
1. — Simple sentences.
2. — Complex sentences.
3. — Compound sentences.
A simple sentence consists of a single proposition.
Ex. — Bells ring.
A simple sentence may consist of two words only, or
of an indefinite number of words : for both subject and
predicate may take a great many modifiers.
Ex. — It is a glorious land, with snowy, bold, and mag-
nificent mountains ; deep, narrow and well wooded valleys:
18 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
bleak plateau and slopes ; wild ravines ; clear and pictur-
esque lakes, immense forests of birch, pine and fir trees.
This sentence is simple, though some of the elements
are complex, and some compound.
Sentences of great length are sometimes difficult to
comprehend, it is better, therefore, to separate them into
short and simple statements.
Brevity often adds beauty and clearness to a statement.
A complex sentence consists of at least two propo-
sitions, one principal, and one subordinate.
Ex. — When the tree was cut down, two birds flew in
circles above his head.
The complex sentence may contain several subordinate
clauses, and may be extended to any length desirable, as
in the following :
When the tree was cut down, two birds flew in circles
above his head, uttering piercing and mournful cries, be-
cause their nest of little fledglings was utterly destroyed.
The parts of a complex sentence are called clauses ;
the principal clause, and the subordinate clause.
The subordinate clause is joined to the principal clause
by a subordinate connective.
A compound sentence consists of two or more
independent propositions connected by co5rdinate con-
junctions.
Ex. — The man cut down the tree, and a nest containing
some beautiful little birds was utterly destroyed.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 19
ANALYSIS.
A-YlCblysis is the process by which the whole is re-
solved or separated into its component elements, ov parts.
In its application to language, analysis refers to a
complete separation of a sentence into its elements ; and a
careful examination of each, in its reference to the whole,
or to some other element.
Syntax and Analysis are so intimately related that
they may properly be treated of together.
As it is impossible to analyze a sentence systematically,
or with any correctness whatever, if the construction be
faulty, it will be necessary to require the pupil to be very
careful in preparing original sentences for practical anal-
ysis.
Original sentences should be required of the pupil
every day.
Sentences properly constructed will separate into their
constituent elements with ease, when the laws of analysis
are applied.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
THE VERB BE.
The verb Be is the life principle of language. With-
out it, no statement can be made.
Every verb has two distinct elements, — one is the as-
sertive, the other, the attributive.
When the assertive part is separated from the attrib-
utive, the latter becomes a participle, having no power
20 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
whatever to express a thought. The assertive element is
the verb Be, called the copula $ it is found in all verbs,
though not always expressed.
In the sentence,
Snow is falling,
the copula and the attribute are both expressed ; is, is
the copula, and fallinf/, the attribute.
But they are often blended; then a new word is formed
in which neither is seen ; just as the blending of two
colors makes a new one, which resembles neither of the
originals. Is falling is equivalent to falls.
The new word is called an attributive verb ; therefore,
The attributive verb is the one word i?i ichich both the
copula and the attribute are blended.
Fall, rise, come, run, etc., are attributive verbs.
The verb Be has two uses.
1. When used alone, it denotes existence, as, God is,
I think, therefore, I am, i. e., I exist. Thus used, Be is
an attributive verb.
Such sentences are often introduced by the word there,
which is simply a word of euphony, forming no material
part of the sentence ; as There is a God.
2. When used to join an attribute to the subject, it is
called the copula.
As a copula, or link, it may connect
a substantive attribute;
an adjective attribute;
a verbal attribute.
The adverb cannot be used as an attribute.
Exercises. —
1. A substantive attribute: The canarv is a bird.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 21
2. An adjective attribute: The canary is pretty.
3. A verbal attribute; The canary is singing.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
The simplest form of the sentence.
God is.
It is a proposition, — it is a combination of a subject
and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore
it is a sentence.
It is a simple sentence, it contains but one proposition.
God is the subject; it is a word which represents that
of which the being, or existence is affirmed.
Is is the predicate; it is a word used to affirm the
being or existence of God.
I EXERCISE.
I am. He was. They were. There are joys. There
were sorrows. There was pleasure.
The verb Be when used to denote existence is usually
followed by an adverbial element of place; as, I am here.
He was in town.
Write ten sentences containing the verb Be, used to
denote existence.
THE VERB BE USED AS COPULA.
The verb Be is always intransitive.
It asserts no action whatever of the subject, therefore
it has no power to govern.
The noun or the pronoun following it represents the
subject in another form, and must agree with it in all that
they have in common.
The subject of every finite verb must be in the ncmina-
22 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
five case; and the noun or pronoun connected to it by the
verb Be, must be in the nominative case also.
The verb Be when used to connect an attribute to the
snbject is called a copula, or link.
RULE I.
The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative
case.
RULE II.
The noun or pronoun connected to the subject of a finite
verb, by the copula, must be in the nominative case.
PRACTICAL.
Such expressions as It is him; It is her; It is them; are
incorrect; say, It is I; It is he; It is she; It is they.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
Lilies are Flowers.
It is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject
and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it
is a sentence.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
Lilies is the subject; it is that of which the attribute,
flowers, is asserted.
Are flowers is the predicate; it is that which is affirm-
ed of lilies.
Are is the copula; it is a form of the verb Be, used to
connect the substantive attribute flowers to the subject
lilies.
Flowers is the substantive attribute; a word used to
represent the class of objects to which the subject belongs.
It agrees with the subject in person, number, and gender,
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 23
and is also in the nominative case to agree with the sub-
ject, according to Rule II.
Exercises upon the verb Be, used as copula, to connect
a substantive attribute.
It is I. Oranges are fruit.
It is he. Indians are savages.
It is she. Diamonds are stones.
It is thou. Pines are evergreens.
It is you. Bees are insects.
Write fifteen sentences to illustrate Rule II.
RULE III.
The adjective connected by the copula to the subject
must represent some characteristic property of the subject.
PRACTICAL.
Great care should be taken to avoid the use of an ad-
jective in the predicate, which represents a quality or a
condition which, from the nature of the subject, could not
belong to it.
Careless as well as ignorant speakers often violate Rule
III. by using such expressions as, — It is awful, It is splen-
did, It is nice, when in reality the object represented by
it, could not, from its nature, possess an element of awe, or
splendor, and the attribute nice is predicated of almost ev-
ery object under the sun, whether small or great.
Teachers should not regard this as a matter of small
importance, but should promptly and persistently call the
attention of the pupil to his mistake, and aid him in acquir-
ing a correct habit in the use of the predicate adjective.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
Lilies are Beautiful.
It is a proposition; it is a combination of a subject and
a predicate.
24 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
It is the expression of a thought in words ; therefore it
is a sentence.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
Lilies is the subject; it is a word which represents
that of which the attribute, beautiful, is asserted.
Are beautiful is the predicate; it is that which is
asserted of the subject.
Are is the copula; it is the form of the verb Be, used to
connect the adjective attribute, beautiful, to the subject,
lilies.
Beautiful is the adjective attribute, a word used to
represent a quality that is natural to the subject, lilies, and
agrees with it according to Rule III.
EXERCISE I.
The verb Be used to connect an adjective attribute to
the subject.
Winds were cold. Jewels are valuable.
Snow is white. Thou art merciful.
Apples are sour. Mary is careful.
Job was patient. John is faithful.
Water is clear. Fawns are graceful.
Write ten sentences to illustrate Rule III.
KULE IV.
The verbal attribute connected to the subject by the
verl) Be, must represent some action or state natural to the
subject.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
Lilies are growing.
It is a proposition ; it is the combination of a subject
and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words ; therefore it
is a sentence.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 25
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
Lilies is the subject ; it is that about which the action,
groioing, is affirmed.
Are groioing is the predicate; it is that which is as-
serted of the subject.
Are is the copula ; it is a form of the verb Be used to
connect a verbal attribute to the subject.
Groioing is the verbal attribute; a word used to repre-
sent an action that is natural to the subject, with which it
agrees according to Rule IV.
PRACTICAL.
Do not predicate an action of the subject which it can
not perform, or a state which is not natural to it.
Say the lark is singing, not the lark is cooing / the boy
is lying on the ground, not, the boy is laying on the
ground, when reference is made to his being prostrate on
the ground ; he is sitting in a chair, not he is setting in a
chair.
EXERCISE II.
The verb Me used to connect a verbal attribute to the
subject.
Bells are ringing. Eagles are screaming.
Ships were sailing. Doves were cooing.
Snow is falling. Thou art sighing.
Ice is melting. He is laughing.
Boys were skating. Lions were roaring.
The copula is used also to connect to the subject a
passive participle, which is a verbal attribute used to
represent an action received by the subject. The copula
and this attribute combined form the passive voice of the
verb. The copula and the verbal attribute should be
parsed together as one verb.
Ex. — John is respected.
26 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Note — The infinitive To Be, used to connect the attributice ob-
ject of a verb or a preposition to the direct object, will be treated <>l
in connection with the Double Object.
Care has been taken to present only the simplest form
of the sentence, with no modifiers whatever.
Note. — Some authors, very few, however, have attempted to
justify the use of an objective after Be, saying that the construction
is a 'genuine idiom of the English, formed on the analogy of the
French C" est mot, etc.
The etc. remains a mystery to the pupil unacquainted with the
French language ; but he is impressed with the notion that it con-
tains weighty matter in favor of this usage.
The fact is, that in the French language there are four construc-
tions in which the dative form of the pronoun is used in the place of
the nominative form, but the change of form does not change I In-
case of the pronoun.
The nominative singular of the personal pronouns in the French
language is :
First person, je, I.
Second person, tit., thou.
Third person, U, he.
But, in the four cases to which reference has been made, je becomes
moi, tu becomes tot, and il becomes lui. The plurals change form,
also, in the same way.
The four constructions are the following :
1. When the pronoun is used as a substantive attribute, as c' est
moi, it is I.
2. When the subject is compound, as lui et moi, nous apprenona
le francais, he and I study French.
3. When used witli plus que to denote comparison of inequality,
ssje suis plusjeune que lui, I am younger than he.
4. When used to answer questions, as qui a fait cela? — moi, who
has done that? — I.
If the expression, it is me, is a correct translation of e'est moi,
then him and me are learning French, is a correct translation of lui
et moi nous apprenom le francais ; I am younger than Mm, is a cor-
rect translation of je suis plus jeune que lui. and who has done that?
me, is a correct translation of qui a fait cela? moi.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 2?
The advocates of this objective form after Be, are careful not to
go beyond the first example, including the others under the head of
etc.
The authors of the Frencn grammars are the highest authority
in the matter, and they invariably translate these dative forms into
the English, as nominatives.
In some of the grammars, too, the forms, moi, toi, lui, etc., are
given in the declension of the personal pronouns as second forms of
the nominative. — See "Ann's French Method," page 106.
THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE USED AS ATTRIBUTE.
The prepositional phrase is often used as attribute, to
denote some quality or condition of the subject.
In this use, it is equivalent to an adjective, and, when
treated as a whole, should be disposed of as an adjective.
It is a separable phrase, however, and each word may
be parsed separately.
This construction is somewhat troublesome, from the
fact that there are two connectives, — the copula and the
preposition.
Ex. — He is above reproach.
According to the best authors, the copula is used to
connect the entire phrase to the subject, just as it is used
to connect a single word.
The preposition, if used as a relation word in such con-
struction, which is doubtful, shows the relation of its
object to the subject.
In analysis, however, it is better to regard the phrase
as inseparable, for such expressions are always weakened
by analysis.
This form of the adjective attribute is very com in on,
perhaps because it denotes the property or condition of
28 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
the subject, with greater intensity, and, also, with more
precision than the adjective.
It is frequently the case that no adjective in the lan-
guage can be found to convey the exact meaning given by
the phrase.
In the sentence, He is above reproach, the phrase,
above reproach, has no exact equivalent.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
We are in trouble.
It is a proposition ; it is the combination of a subject
and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words, therefore it
is a sentence.
It is a simple sentence ; it contains but one proposition.
We is the subject; it is a word which represents that
of which the condition, in trouble, is asserted.
Are is the copula; it is a form of the verb Be, used
to connect the adjective attribute, in trouble, to the sub-
ject We.
In trouble is the adjective attribute; it is a phrase
used to represent a condition that is natural to the subject,
and agrees with it, according to Rule III.
EXERCISE I.
The Phrase used as Attribute.
He is above reproach. They are in harmony.
That is out of the question. John is without friends.
I am in haste. They are in despair.
Mary is at leisure. You are at rest.
He is beneath contempt. James is out of humor.
Write fifteen sentences to illustrate prepositional phrase
as attribute.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 29
THE INFINITIVE USED AS ATTRIBUTE.
The infinitive phrase is often used as the attribute of a
subject, and forms, with the copula, the grammatical pre-
dicate.
When thus used it denotes:
1. Something that ought to be.
Ex. — Lessons are to be studied.
2. An equivalent expression.
Ex. — To be is to exist.
3. What is settled.
Ex. — She is to teach.
4. What is expected.
Ex. — He is to return.
5. What is possible.
Ex. — Gold is to be found.
6. What is required.
Ex. — You are to go.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
Wendell Phillips is to Lecture.
It is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject
and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it
is a sentence.
It contains but one proposition; therefore it is a simple
sentence.
Wendell Phillips is the subject ; it is that about
which to lecture is affirmed.
7s is the copula; a form of the verb Be, used to con-
nect the attribute, to lecture, to the subject.
To lecture is an infinitive, used as attribute, to denote
30 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
something that is expected of the subject, and it belongs
to the subject.
In this use, standard authors call the infinitive a sub-
stantive attribute; but, like the infinitive in all its uses, it
retains the verbal signification, and may be modified as a
verb.
EXERCISE II.
The Infinite used as Attribute.
Parents are to be honored. To obey is to enjoy.
To exterminate is to destroy. Teachers are to be respected.
[ am to go. Rulers are to be obeyed.
Pearls are to be found. The house is to rent.
Horses were to be sold. He is to preach.
Violets are to be seen. Mary is to sing.
What the infinitive denotes, cannot always be deter-
mined upon, easily, without joining to it some adverbial
modifier. In the sentence, Pearls are to be found, the
infinitive is used to denote something possible, as, Pearls
are to be found, sometimes, in the rivers.
THE COPULATIVE VERB.
The attribute of a proposition, whether substantive, ad-
jective, or verbal, must agree with the subject when joined
to it by a copulative vevb.
A verb of complete predication is one which, in itself,
indicates, clearly, what it asserts of the subject.
In the sentence, God is, it requires no effort of the
mind to understand that the fact of the existence of the
subject is meant.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 3]
In the sentence, John sleeps, the verb conveys to the
mind the state of the subject ; and in the following : he
goes, he runs, he writes, etc , the peculiar kind of action
asserted of the subject, by the verb in each sentence, is
definitely expressed.
But it has been already shown that the verb Be, when
it is not used to denote existence, requires the help of
another word, to enable it to make sense, and that it then
performs the office of a copula, or link, to join the attribute
to the subject.
It is, in reality, the copula proper; but there are other
verbs that resemble it in this respect ; therefore they are
called copulative verbs.
The greater number of these, however, are in their
common use, verbs of full, or complete predication ; and
it is only in a peculiar use that they join an attribute to
the subject.
In the sentence, he seems, the verb taken alone means
nothing ; but, in he seems a beggar, he seems sick, he seems
determined, the added word, in each case, completes the
predication.
The infinitive form of Be is usually understood after
become, seem, and others.
Ex. — He seems (to be) determined.
After the passive form of some verbs, the participle
being, with as, is understood.
Ex. — $he is regarded (as being) a good teacher.
The conjunction, as, is, sometimes placed before
the attribute, without being, when the verb is passive,
simply to express the idea of capacity or office, and, per-
haps, to give emphasis in some cases.
Ex. — He was regarded as a good teacher.
It is said by the best authors that almost any verb may
32 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
be used to predicate an attribute of the subject, but the
following are those commonly used for this purpose:
become
go,
die,
seem,
get,
continue,
appear,
grow,
come,
look,
bake,
make,
feel,
walk,
taste,
turn,
live,
smell.
remain,
ind the passive
form of :
account,
consider,
create,
deem,
regard,
elect,
style,
name,
hear,
call,
think,
paint,
reckon,
say,
appoint.
The last named, take after them in the active voice, a
direct object, and predicate of it an attributive object. This
construction will be treated of hereafter.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
Bread is baked brown.
It is a proposition ; it is a combination of a subject and
and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words ; therefore it
is a sentence.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
Bread is the subject ; it is a word which represents
that of which the attribute, brown, is asserted.
Is baked brown is the predicate; it is that which is
asserted of the subject.
Ts baked is the copulative verb, used to connect the
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 33
adjective attribute, brown, to the subject, bread, according
to Rule IV.
In this sentence, the adjective brown is a second attri-
bute, and represents a quality of the subject, acquired
through the action indicated by the verb baked.
In all passive forms of the copulative verb, the passive
participle used with the verb lie, is considered the first
attribute, and the noun, adjective, or participle following,
the second attribute.
Ex. — He was called a martyr. Called is the first, or
verbal, attribute, and martyr the second, or substantive
attribute.
PRACTICAL.
It is of great importance that young persons be taught
the nature and use of the copulative verb; many, whose
attention has not been directed persistently to those things,
imagine they are using the very best English when they
say, She looks beautifully, I feel miserably, I feel badly,
etc.
One can easily decide when to use an adverb, and when
an adjective, by observing the following :
If reference is made to a quality, a property or a con-
dition of the subject, an adjective, or an adjective expres-
sion, should be used after the verb.
But, if the manner of the action is referred to, an
adverb is required.
She looks beautiful ; she writes beautifully.
He looks cold, for he has been on the ice; his mother
looks coldly on him, because he has disobeyed her.
I feel bad, when I am not well, or when I am in trouble;
I feel badly, when the sense of touch is nof acute.
C
34 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
The copulative verb used to connect an attribute to the
subject.
It becomes tiresome. He is going mad.
She seems sick. She walks a queen.
Leaves turn yellow. They stand defenders.
You look cold. She moves a goddess.
He looks bad. He was called John.
I feel warm. I feel happy.
I feel miserable. Henry was made sick.
They remain silent. He was made worse.
Apples get ripe. He grows desperate.
It is said to be true. He was made consul.
Pierce was elected president.
The bread was baked brown.
Stephen died a martyr.
The house is painted white.
He was heard to speak.
Write fifteen sentences to illustrate the rule.
MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT.
RULE I. — ANALYSIS.
Any word, whether it be an adjective, a noun, or a pro-
noun, when joined to the subject to limit or qualify it, must
be called in analysis an adjective element.
A sentence, in its simplest form, is composed of a noun
used as the subject, and a finite verb used to assert some-
thing of the subject.
In order to convey a thought, with all its shades of
meaning, however, it is necessary, in most sentences, to
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 35
introduce other words for the purpose of modifying both
the subject, and the predicate verb.
In the sentence, birds Jieio, the class to which the sub-
ject, birds, belongs is understood at once; and the kind of
action indicated by the verb, flew, is, also, clearly under-
stood ; but, still the thought is very indefinite.
Three young white birds Rewfrom the tree.
Here the words joined to the subject show the kind,
the age, and the number of birds, and the modifier of the
predicate shows the place where the action was performed.
Thus it is seen that the use of these additional words
or phrases will enable a speaker or a writer to make a clear
and definite statement, and to extend the simple sentence
to any desired length.
The English language is rich in modifying words, yet
all those that are used to vary the meaning of the subject,
or a noun in any construction, may be classed under Tour
heads :
1. Limiting adjectives 9 which simply restrict the
meaning of the noun, without showing any quality or prop-
erty, whatever, as :
an orange,
two apples,
that man.
2. Qualifying adjectives, which show some prop-
erty or quality natural to the object represented by the
noun, as :
a sweet orange,
a sour apple,
a wise man.
3. Nouns or pronouns used to explain or to identify
another noun or pronoun, as :
db SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Victoria, Queen of England,
Charles, the boy of whom I spoke.
4. Nouns or pronouns used to denote possession, as :
Mary's book,
his hand.
The adjectives which are used simply to limit tne
meaning of a noun without designating any quality, in-
clude :
1. 'Articles.
2. Pronominal Adjectives.
3. Numeral Adjectives.
There are two articles; the indefinite article, an or a,
and the definite article, the.
The indefinite article an is derived from the Anglo-
Saxon ane, meaning one; but there is a shade of differ-
ence; an is not so exact as one, nor is it so emphatic. An
apple — not an orange; one apple — not two apples.
It is a mistake to say that a becomes an before a vowel
sound ; the change is made from an to a.
The changes were made for the sake of euphony.
First, the e^fcras dropped entirely from ane, leaving an ;
and afterwards the n was dropped from an, leaving the a
only, before words beginning with a consonant sound.
It is now regarded as an absolute law of our language,
than an should be used before words beginning with a
vowel sound, and a before words beginning with a conso-
nant sound.
In old English, the form a or o is found for an, even
when used as a numeral. We still say, they are both of a
size, %. e., both of one size. — Mason.
There is a peculiar construction of an or a with many,
such, what, and some other words, as, many a man, such
an hour, what a boy, etc.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 37
Iii such combinations, the adjective and the article
should be parsed as one word, and should be so considered
in analysis.
Many, followed by an or a, always limits a noun in the
singular, though it at the same time indicates plurality;
and the pronoun relating to the singular noun is usually
put in the plural ; as :
I have heard many an act of devotion, in my life, had
Heaven vouchsafed me grace to profit by them.
The definite article the is used to point out the
particular thing or things spoken of.
It is derived from the Anglo-Saxon thaet, which was
changed to that, and finally, to the, but both are used.
There is a shade of difference in meaning, however.
That is the stronger word, and may be used to represent
a noun ; the is not so emphatic, and cannot take the place
of a noun.
The is sometimes used with a noun taken in its widest
sense for a whole race or species ; as :
The lion is king of beasts.
The eagle is a noble bird.
Go to the ant, thou sluggard.
The oak is a tall tree.
The violet grows in shady places.
But some nouns are used in their toidest sense, when no
article is placed before them. The man, always means one
man ; — jnan, used without the article, always refers to the
race, as :
Man (all human beings) is endowed with reason.
The noun designating the ywofession, trade, or occupa-
tion of man, however, when used with the, is often taken
in its toidest sense, as :
The physician heals the sick.
The farmer cultivates the soil.
38
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Pronominal Adjectives.
Certain limiting adjectives are called JPrononiiiitd
Adjectives, because they may be used, with equal pro-
priety, either as a pronoun, representing- a noun under-
stood, or as an adjective, limiting- the noun expressed.
When used to represent a noun understood, only a few
of them require the use of the article, as :
The former, the latter, the same.
Every and no require a noun, as neither of them can
be used alone to represent a noun.
Pronominal Adjectives are divided into four classes :
1. Distributives!, or those which refer to things
taken singly.
They are each, every, either, neither.
2. Demonstratives , or those that refer to things,
pointing them out definitely, as :
This, that, these, those, former, latter, same.
3. Reciprocals , or those which bear a mutual rela-
tion.
They are each other and one another.
4. The Indefinites, or those which refer to objects
indefinitely. Words of this class are numerous, but the
following are the principal :
/Some, such, all, none, any, whole, one, other, another.
One and other may be declined.
One is not derived from the Anglo-Saxon ane, from
which the numeral one is derived. It comes from the
French on, which is an indefinite pronoun^ derived from
the word homme, meaning man. On may be translated as,
anybody, somebody, they, it, etc., as:
On dit — they say, it is said somebody says, etc.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 6\i
PRACTICAL.
Use either and neither when reference is made to two
things only, as :
Either of the two books.
Any of the three books.
Do not say, the two boys help one another, but, the two
boys help each other. One another should be used with
reference to three or more persons or things ; each other,
with reference to two, only.
This and these refer to things near to us, or to some-
thing' just mentioned ; that and those, to something more
distant, or something spoken of before.
The Numeral Adjectives.
Numeral adjectives are those used in counting,
in numbering, and in multiplying, as:
One, two, first, threefold.
Those used in counting are called cavdiltals, be-
cause they are the principal, or most important, as:
One, two, three, twenty, thirty, hundred.
Note. — The cardinal points of the compass are the principal
points. Cardinal red,— the color worn by the cardinals, or principal
officers of the Catholic Church.
Those used in numbering are called ordinals 9 be-
cause they point out which thing, or which things, in a
series, as:
First, second, ninth, twentieth.
The greater number of the ordinals are derived from
the cardinals, and are formed by adding th, as:
Sixth, seventh, tenth, hundredth;
but the ordinals corresponding to one, two, three, are:
First, second, third.
40 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Those used to denote repetition, or to show how many
times, are called -multi pi i rati res f as:
Once, twice, thrice (these ai e often used as adverbs),
two-fold, ten-fold, hundred-fold, double, triple, quadruple.
The numeral adjectives, when used without the noun,
yet referring- to the noun, either just mentioned or clearly
understood, should he parsed as a noun, as:
\Vhere are my books?
Ans. Two are on the table, and three are in the library.
In this sentence two and three should be parsed as nouns.
When the ordinals are used as nouns, the article is
required before them, as:
The first entered; the second remained outside.
The ordinal adjectives are more definite than the car-
dinals, as:
Study one lesson, *. e., any lesson.
Study the second lesson, i. e., a particular lesson.
PRACTICAL.
The numeral adjectives which denote how many, must
agree in number with the noun which they limit, as:
Two boys, three miles, four feet.
Nouns used with numeral adjectives to denote de-
grees of measurement, should be in the singular or in the
plural, as the case may be, as:
Cut off one inch or two inches of the string.
Cut off one foot or two feet of the pole.
Cut off one yard or two yards of the cloth.
But, when the words inch, foot, yard, etc., are used
with a numeral adjective, forming a comjilex adjective term,
they should always be in the singular, as:
Cut off two inches of the nine-inch string.
Cut off three feet of the ten-foot pole.
Cut off four yards of the forty-yard bolt of cloth.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 41
He surveyed ten acres on the east side of the forty-acre
tract.
Sometimes a numeral adjective and a noun combined
are used to denote quantity or amount. In such cases the
verb should always be singular, though the noun be in the
plural, as:
Two hundred dollars is all I need.
Ten minutes was all the time allowed me.
But, in speaking of coins, the plural verb should be
used, as:
Two hundred gold dollars were in the box.
Under this head may be classed such expressions as:
Twice four is eight, Jive times six is thirty, etc.,
but while the weight of authority is in favor of the use
of the singular verb, in the last-named, some good writers
use the plural.
Qualifying Adjectives.
Adjectives that are joined to nouns to limit them by
denoting some quality, property, or peculiarity, are classed
under the head of Qualifying Adjectives, as:
A bright star, a daily visit, an earnest student.
The greater number of these adjectives are varied to
denote different degrees of quality, but there are some that
will not admit of comparison. Among the last named are:
1. Those of absolute signification, or such as indicate a
quality, which, from its nature, can not exist in the object
in a greater or a less degree, as:
Mortal, immortal, eternal, everlasting, infinite, almighty,
omniscient, etc.
2. Those denoting position, form and material, as:
Vertical, square, woolen, etc.
3. Those derived from proper names, as:
4:2 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
American, Washingtonian .
The words full, round, and perfect, seem to have an
absolute signification, yet some good writers use them in
the comparative and the superlative.
J^gr* Some adjectives, mostly compounds of a, can be
used only in the predicate, as:
Asleep, alive, awake.
Many of the qualifying adjectives may be used in the
place of a noun, and parsed as such, when the reference to
the noun is clear, but the article must be used with them, as:
The sweet applies are in the basket, but the sour are in
the box.
Note. — Some authors say that in expressions such as the above,
the adjectives are not used as nouns, but should be parsed as adject-
ives limiting a noun understood; and, that, in such as the following:
" The poor ye have always with you," the adjective should be parsed
as a noun. It would seem, however, that the distinction is too nice
to be noticed, if there be really any distinction whatever.
The adjective, as it has already been explained, is used
to limit nouns only, but there is a peculiar, though a very
common construction, in which the adjective limits a com-
plex idea, formed by a noun and an adjective combined, as:
I saw beautiful American silk.
She had a large white rose.
In the first sentence, beautiful modifies American silk,
and in the second sentence, large modifies white rose.
A careful distinction should be made between the ad-
jective element, which is always a modifier, and the adjective
attribute, which is never a modifier.
To modify is to vary, to give a new form to, and to
change, not only the form of the word itself, but also to
change the meaning, to a certain extent.
A change in the word itself is a modification of the
word, as, from the singular to the plural.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 43
Ex. — Man, men ; boy, boys.
Changes are made also by additional words, and these
words are called modifiers. They are always subordinate
words depending upon the subject, or any noun which they
are used to modify, as:
A rich man ; a good boy.
But, to predicate is to affirm, to assert, to declare, or to
state some attribute of the subject.
The adjective, therefore, used with the copula, or with
the copulative verb, to form the grammatical predicate, is
simply the word used as the name of a quality which is
declared to exist in the subject, and for that reason it is
said to belong to the subject.
The grammatical subject and the gram-
matical predicate are both principal elements, there-
fore as the adjective attributive forms a part of the gram-
matical predicate, it can not be a modifier; for all modifiers,
as it has been said, are subordinate elements.
Participles.
Participles , when used as modifiers of the noun, are
included under the head of qualifying adjectives.
But, as they differ materially from the qualifying ad-
jective proper, it is thought necessary to explain, carefully,
their nature as well as their uses.
A participle is not a distinct part of speech. It is a
word which partakes of the nature of a verb, and of some
other part of speech, as the name indicates; for the word
participle is derived from the Latin word participare,
meaning to partake.
The participle is derived from a verb, and in all its uses
retains the signification of a verb, but it can not be used to
assert.
44 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
In the construction of a sentence it is used as an adject-
ive or a noun, seldom, if ever, as an adverb.
It has been stated that every verb has two parts, the
assertive p>art or copula, and the attributive part.
When the verb is deprived of the power of asserting,
the attributive part alone is left, and this part is called a
participle.
As the participle always retains the signification of the
verb from which it is derived, it follows:
1. That if the verb is an active transitive verb, its par?
ticiples must be active and transitive, as:
John loved his mother.
Here loved is an active transitive verb, and governs the
object, mother ; and in the expression, John loving his
mother, the participle loving retains the active transitive
signification of the verb love, from which it is derived, and
it also governs the object, mother.
In the expression, John loved by his mother, the parti
ciple, though passive in form, still retains the active trans-
itive signification of the verb love, for:
Neither a verb nor a participle can take a passive form
(except in certain idioms, as : he is come, they are gone,
etc.) if it has not an active transitive signification.
When a verb is transitive, it asserts an action which
passes from the actor, and produces an effect upon some
object or objects.
The subject of a verb does not necessarily represent an
a tor, but it, as often, perhaps, represents a person or a
thing acted upon ; therefore, it is the subject in such sen-
tences that is in fact, passive ; and it follows :
Though the nature of the verb is not changed, it takes
what is called a passive form, only to show that the subject,
instead of acting, is the receiver of the act.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 45
As the participle must retain the nature of the verb
from which it is derived, the passive participle must retain
an active transitive signification, and is used, not to assert,
but simply to denote the reception of an act by the subject,
or a noun in other constructions.
2. If the verb from which the participle is derived is an
active intransitive verb, the participle is an active intransi-
tive participle, as :
The sun rises •
here rises is an active intransitive verb ; and in the expres-
sion, the sun rising, the participle is active and intransitive.
3. If the verb expresses being, the participle will denote
being, as :
Mary is here. Mary being here.
4. If the verb asserts state, the participle denotes state, as:
The child sleeps on the ground. The child sleeping on
the ground.
Note. — The participle is often used as a noun, and,
sometimes, also, seems to have an adverbial signification,
but in this lesson it will be treated of only in its use as a
modifier of the subject, or of nouns in other constructions
in the simple sentence, as:
The singing bird; the twinkling star; a cultivated field;
a refined manner.
In the above expressions, the participles are used to
limit the nouns, and are placed before the nouns.
These are called participial adjectives.
The participle in an abridged proposition intro-
duces an adjective element, which is called participial con-
struction; but, though this participle introduces and forms
a part of the adjective element, it should not be called a
participial adjective.
Note. — Careful instruction should be given in the
method of parsing a participial adjective.
46 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Note. — A celebrated author says : When a participle
is so used (before the noun) call it a participial adjective
and parse it as any other adjective/ but, it would seem
better to instruct the pupil in all that pertains to the par-
ticiple, excepting those points which are beyond his com-
prehension.
The pupil in the common schools cannot understand,
easily, references made to the Latin; therefore it is thought
better to omit any discussion on the gerund or the gerund-
ive.
But the pupil can understand, with little effort, that the
word singing, in the sentence, the singing bird is in the
cage, though it is used to modify the word bird, differs
materially from the word beautiful, in the sentence, " the
beautiful bird is in the cage.'1
This difference is not a difference in use; for both
words are used for the same purpose, *. e., to modify a
noun; but the words themselves differ.
The word beautiful, as well as the other qualifying
adjectives, is always, and in every construction, used to
qualify a noun, even though the noun be understood.
The word singing, however (and all the present active
participles) may be used in six different constructions; yet
it never loses the nature of the verb from which it is
derived; in all these constructions it retains the idea of
action.
Illustration. — A piece of stone may be made the
size, the shape, and the color of a brick; and it may be
used in the construction of a house, as a brick is used; yet
it will not lose one element of its nature — it will still be
stone.
Note. — The passive participles have four different con-
structions; the perfect active and the perfect passive
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 47
participles have, each, two different constructions. These
will be explained hereafter.
Great care should be taken to instruct pupils in the
correct use of the participle.
Habit is .more powerful in controlling speech than
knowledge is; therefore, in many cases, the teacher will
find constant and persistent efforts necessary on his part to
aid his pupils in freeing themselves from the habit of using
such expressions as:
1. I seen it. You done it.
These are incorrect, because both seen and done are
participles; • and no participle, when used alone, has any
power to make an assertion. Say:
I saw it. You did it.
2. I have saw. I have went. The bell has rang.
These expressions are incorrect, because the words saw,
went, and rang are verbs, in the past tense; and the last
word of every verb in the perfect tense must be a parti-
ciple. Say:
I have seen. I have gone. The bell has rung.
The participle when used with any auxiliary verb is
parsed with the auxiliary, the two forming one verb.
3. I had ought to go.
This expression is not only inelegant, but there is not
the shadow of an argument in favor of its use. The verb
ought is a defective verb; it has no participle, therefore it
can not have a perfect tense. Say:
J ought to go.
MODEL.
He surveyed ten acres of the forty-acre tract.
This is a sentence, it is the expression of a thought in
words.
It is a simple sentence, it contains but one proposition
48 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Declarative it makes an affirmation.
He is the subject, unmodified.
Surveyed is the simple predicate, it is modified
by ten acres of the forty-acre tract, a complex objective
word element. Acres is the basis, modified by ten, a
simple adjective element, and Jxy of the forty-acre tract, a
complex adjective element, tract is modified by forty -acre
a complex adjective element, an inseparable adjective
term.
MODIFICATION OF THE SUBJECT.— APPOSITION.
RULE II. ANALYSIS.
A noun or a personal pronoun in apposition with
another noun or pronoun, must be in the same cast ; and,
in analysis, it should be called an adjective element.
Apposition is from the Latin AppOSttUS, which
means put to; the noun in apposition is put to the other
noun, or by the side of it.
Abraham, the servant of the Lord.
Hope, the charmer.
Apposition proper, does not include the ^>m7/cate
nominative, as some have supposed; for:
1. The predicate nominative is not put to nor by the
side of the subject.
2. The noun or pronoun in apposition with the subject
is used as a modifier of the subject, and thus becomes,
itself, a part of the logical, or complex subject.
As it must be in the same construction as the subject,
it can not possibly form a part of the predicate; but the
Attribute, or predicate nominative forms a material part
of the grammatical predicate.
The noun or the personal pronoun, however, may be
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 49
used in apposition with a noun or a pronoun in any con-
struction, as:
1. Apposition with the subject nominative:
Snow- Bound, a beautiful poem, was written by Whit-
tier.
2. Apposition with the predicate nominative:
This is Snow-Bound, a beautiful poem written by
Whittier.
3. Apposition with the objective:
I am reading Snow-Bound, a beautiful poem by Whit-
tier.
4. Apposition with the possessive:
Whittier the poets Snow-Bound is a beautiful poem.
5. x\pposition with the nominative independent:
O sun, source of all light!
In the fourth illustration the word Whittier is the real
possessive, and the word poet is in the 2^>ossessive only to
agree with Whittier, but the best writers place the sign of
possession with the last word only.
In the construction of sentences, apposition has several
different uses, all of them important, as:
1. To identify—
Your friend, Mr. Broion, called this morning.
2. To describe —
O my coevals, remnants of yourselves! "
3. To explain —
Tired nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep.
4. In repetitions for the sake of emphasis —
A traitor, a traitor to his country.
The connectives, namely, as, to-ioit, and others are
sometimes used to make the noun in apposition emphatic,
as:
You, as my guardian, have a right to object.
D 3
50 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
POSSESSIVES.
RULE III. ANALYSIS.
A noun or a pronoun used to limit a noun in any
construction, by denoting possession, must, in analysis, be
called an adjective element.
A noun or a pronoun may be used to denote:
1. Ownership, as:
John's horse; my book.
2. Source or origin, as:
The North's cold winter blasts; the South' s warm
gentle zephyrs.
3. Fitness of adaptation, as:
Men's hats; children's shoes.
4. The relation of a part to the whole, as:
The river's source; Mary's hand.
5. Kindred or social relations, as:
Sis friend; your enemy; my father.
6. Result of some action upon, as:
Stephen's martyrdom.
7. Relation of time, place, measurement and weight, as:
A day's work; America's mountains; & yard's length;
& pound's weight.
The possessive relations are often expressed by the
preposition and its object, as:
The house of my father.
The cold winter blasts from the North.
Shoes for children.
The source of the river.
There is & figurative use of the possessive in some com-
pound words —names of plants; these words should always
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 51
be written with the sign of possession, and should always
be parsed as one word, as:
Wolfs-bane, lamtfs-tongite, JoVs-tears, etc.
It is necessary to observe the difference between these
words and others which resemble them, but, though they
suggest the idea of possession, they do not take the pos-
sessive sign, as:
Ratsbane; herdsman.
The last mentioned are taken in their literal significa-
tion, and are written without the sign of possession.
The word wolf's-bane is the name of a plant; it is used
figuratively; but the word rats-bane is the name of a
poison ; and it is used, as it has been said, in its literal
meaning.
PRACTICAL.
The pronouns in the possessive case do not take the
rophe, but they have a peculiar form, as:
The child hurt its (not it's) hand.
COMPLEX POSSESSIVE8.
There are certain combinations of words which form a
complex possessive.
These combinations should be considered inseparable in
analysis; the last word takes the sign of possession, as:
The jewels in the Queen of England's crown are beau-
tiful and rare.
But when possession is predicated, the first noun in the
group of words takes the sign, as:
" There shall nothing die of all that is the children's of
Israel." — Exodus ix. 4.
52 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
COMPOUND POSSESSIVES.
When several nouns in the possessive are coordinate in
construction, each limiting one common object, the last
word only, takes the sign, as:
Taylor, Berry and Brown's store; that is, one store.
William and Mary's reign; that is, one reign.
But, when the coordinate terms in the possessive do
not limit the noun by denoting joint ownership or posses-
sion, each word should take the sign, as:
Greene's, Mason's, and Butler's Grammar; that is, three
grammars.
POSSESSIVES.
There is a peculiar construction in which a noun in the
possessive case is modified by a noun or a pronoun in the
possessive, as:
John's brother's knife; His friend's house.
In the sentence above, the two possessives combined,
form one complex, adjective element, used to limit the noun.
Sometimes an adjective is used to limit a noun in the
possessive, thus forming a complex adjective element, as:
The Ancient Mariner's Agony.
In the above sentence Agony is modified by Ancient
Mariner's, a complex adjective element.
This kind of modification must be carefully distin-
guished from the modification of a complex idea, funned by
the combination of a noun and an adjective.
This combination is explained on Page 42.
The difference may be easily shown by omitting the
word next to the noun; thus in the expression,
Ancient historical records,
if the word historical were omitted, the word ancient would
Still limit the word records.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. • 06
Iii the sentence given above, however, The Ancient
Mariner's Agony, if the word Mariners were omitted,
Ancient would not modify Agony.
Also, in the expression, Mary's teacher's library, Mary
does not modify teacher's library, but the word teacher
only.
If the word teacher's be omitted, it will be seen, at
once, that by making Mary a modifier of library, the mean-
ing is entirely changed.
MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 1.
Every wise man is prudent.
This is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject
and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it
is a sentence.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation.
Man is the subject; it is that about something which
is said.
Is prudent is the predicate; it is what is said of the
subject.
The subject Man is limited by the adjective element
wise, and the complex idea wise man is limited by every,
an adjective element.
The predicate is formed of the copula is and the adjec-
tive attribute prudent.
The predicate is not limited.
Any element which is limited in any way is called a
complex element.
Note. — When the subject is not limited, it is called the
simple or grammatical subject.
54 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
When it is limited, it is called the complex or logical
subject.
MODEL II.
Sis brother's knife is broken.
This is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject
and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it
is a sentence.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
Knife is the simple subject.
His brothers knife is the compiex subject.
Is broken is the predicate.
The simple subject knife is limited by the complex
adjective element, his brother's; the basis of which is
brother's, limited by the adjective attribute his.
The predicate is composed of the copula is and the at-
tribute broken.
It is not limited.
MODEL III.
Venus, the evening star, is brilliant.
This is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject
and a predicate.
It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in
in words.
It is simple sentence ; it contains but one proposition.
Declarative, it asserts or declares something.
Venus is the simple subject.
Venus, the evening star, is the complex subject.
Is brilliant is the predicate.
The simple subject, Venus, is modified by the complex
adjective element, the evening star; the basis of which is
star, a noun in apposition with Venus. Star is modified by
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 55
evening, an adjective element ; and the complex idea,
evening star, is modified by the adjective element the.
Is brilliant, the predicate, is composed of the copula is
and the adjective attribute brilliant. It is not modified.
The subject may be limited also, by a compound adjec-
tive element, as:
A wise and good man should be our ruler.
When the conjunction is omitted, a comma should be
placed between the two adjective elements.
In the sentence above, wise and good are elements of
equal rank, each depending upon and modifying the sub-
ject man.
RULE IV. ANALYSIS.
A preposition and its object, or an infinitive may be
used to limit the meaning of a noun, and in analysis
should be called an adjective ivord element.
A pJivase, in its broadest sense, is any group of words
which does not contain a, finite verb, as:
A very large river.
But, in the analysis of sentences, the term phrase will
be applied to the infinitive, and the preposition and its
object only, as:
At home, in town, to go, to sing.
The prepositional phrase is often used as an adjective
element; and the relation is usually shown by of, as:
A thing of beauty; An hour of happiness; The top of
the tree.
Any preposition, however, may be used to show the
relation of its object to a noun, as:
The birds in the cage are beautiful.
The tree by the fountain is an oak.
The boy in the house is my brother.
The arirl at the window is vour sister.
56 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
The stars above us are brilliant.
Each phrase in the above sentences is an adjective ele-
ment.
This may be proved by expanding the phrase into an
adjective clause, as:
The tree by the fountain, — the tree which is by the
fountain.
The girl at the window, — the girl xoho is at the window,
etc.
These prepositional phrases, when used in the clauses,
are adverbial elements; but when the clauses are abridged,
whatever part of the element remains, takes, not only the
character, but the name, also, of the clause of which it
once formed a part.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
The time to return was set.
It is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject
and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it
is a sentence.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
Time is the simple subject.
The time to return is the complex subject.
Was set is the predicate.
Time, the simple subject, is modified by the, a simple
adjective element.
It is also modified by to return, an infinitive used as an
adjective element.
The predicate is composed of the copula is, and the
verbal attribute set. It is not modified.
EXERCISES.
The two good boys are studying.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 57
Three weary pilgrims are resting.
Singing birds were sold.
The sun, a snow-blown traveler, sank, etc. — Whittiee.
The hour of rest has come.
Houses to rent are scarce.
' ' Lives the Arrow-maker's daughter,
Minnehaha, Laughing "Water,
Handsomest of all the women. " — Longfellow.
Objective Element.
rule v. analysis.
Any xoord used to complete the meaning of a transitive
verb, or its participles, is in the objective case/ and in
analysis should be called an objective word element.
A transitive verb is one which shows that the
action passes from the subject, either a person or a thing,
and terminates with some other person or thing, affecting
it in some way indicated by the verb; as:
He cut the apple.
Mary loves her mother.
The subject of the verb may be the actor y or it may be
the receiver of the act; but, in either case, the verb is tran-
sitive, as:
The boy killed the bird.
In this sentence killed is a transitive verb, in the active
voice, and is used to assert the kind of action performed by
the subject.
But, in the sentence, The bird was killed by the boy,
toas killed is a transitive verb, in the passive voice, and is
used to assert the kind of action received by the subject.
In analysis, the object upon which the action termi-
nates, should be called the direct objective element.
58 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
I broke the pitcher myself.
It is a proposition ; it is the combination of a subject
and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it
is a sentence.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
I is the subject; it is a word which represents the
person of whom the action indicated by the verb broke is
asserted. It is modified by myself, an adjective element,'
by apposition, used for the sake of emphasis.
Broke, the simple predicate, is modified by the com-
plex direct objective element, the pitcher, the basis of
which is pitcher, modified by the adjective element the.
Some verbs are always transitive, as:
Eat, write, teach, see, love, destroy, read, etc.
They require an object to complete their meaning; and
always suggest an object, if one is not expressed.
When one says, I read every night, there is no doubt
whatever in the mind of the hearer, — lie knows that the
action indicated by the word read, terminates on some
object; if one eats, he must exert an action upon some-
thing; and the verb teach always suggests two parties, — a
subject and an
Note. — Authors who assert that a verb should be called
transitive, only when an object is expressed, are, probably,
not aware of the confusion and uncertainty produced in
the minds of teachers and/>?<£><7s, by such a statement.
Some verbs properly classed with transitive verbs, when
used in a peculiar signification, become intransitive, as:
Gather, break, siceep, move, melt, and others.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 59
Transitive. Intransitive.
He gathers nuts. The clouds gather.
She breaks the glass. The day breaks.
I swept the floor. The wind swept by.
John melted the lead. The ice melts.
He moved the chair. She moved gracefully.
In the sentences above, under the head of Intransitive,
no object is suggested by the verbs ; yet, when these verbs
are spoken of alone (when not in a sentence) they should
be called transitive, for they are commonly so used; one may
gather, break, sioeep, melt^ and move a great many things.
An intransitive verb is one which represents an action
that does not pass from the subject, but expresses, in full,
the idea intended to be conveyed, without even suggesting
an object, as:
Rise, fall, go, come, lie (to recline), sit, etc.
Such verbs are always intransitive.
The verbs be, become, and seem, also, are always intran-
sitive.
Some intransitive verbs become transitive by a peculiar
use.
1. When followed by a noun of kindred signification, as:
He lived a happy life.
He died the <£ea£A of the righteous.
You sang a song.
I raw a race.
She dreamed a dream.
2. By denoting a causative signification, as:
They raw a tfrai'w.
He^ew his &&e.
He flashed the powder.
60 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
3. By the addition of a preposition, as:
Intransitive Transitive.
They laughed aloud. They laughed a* him.
Transitive, passive voice.
He was laughed at.
Note. — The verb and the preposition should be parsed together
as a compound verb.
Indirect Object..
rule vi. analysis.
A noun or pronoun, used with a preposition, either
expressed or understood, to modify the meaning of a verb,
should be called, in analysis, an objective phrase element.
The indirect object may be a noun or pronoun used
with a preposition to indicate:
1. The person or thing to whom, or to which, or for
whom, or for which an action is exerted.
2. That out of which a thing is made.
3. The person or thing of whom, or of which something
is said.
Ex. — He gave a book to me.
He gives rain to the thirsty ground.
It gives strength to the cord.
He made a coat out of the cloth.
I wrote a letter for Mary.
Mary works for the society.
John spoke of his father.
John spoke of his troubles.
You gave him a dollar.
Some verbs may be followed by an indirect object only,
as:
Speak, work, write, and some others;
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 61
but the direct object is often understood, and may be sup-
plied easily.
Ex. — He spoke to me.
I work for him.
He writes for the Journal.
Note. — The infinitive, though it is a phrase element, is, when
used as an object of a verb, always a direct object.
MODEL I.
Mr. Long bought some toys for his children.
It is a proposition; it is the combination of a
subject and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words,
therefore it is a sentence.
It is a simple sentence ; it contains but one propo-
sition.
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirm-
ation.
Mr. Long is the simple subject; it is not
modified.
Bought is the simple predicate; it is
modified by the complex direct ob-
jective element, some toys, of which
toys is the basis, modified by some,
a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
JBougllt is also modified by for
his children, an objective phr use-
element (indirect object); for chil-
dren is the basis; children is
modified by Jtis, a simple adjective
word element.
63 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
The indirect object is often used to complete the
meaning of an adjective, as:
I am anxious to go.
She was desirous of fame.
It is not pleasant to him.
When the infinitive is used to complete the meaning of
an adjective, it is an indirect object.
The preposition should be omitted when the indirect
object is placed before the direct.
Ex. — Mr. Long bought his children some toys.
Sometimes the indirect object is used without a prepo-
sition, when the direct object is understood.
Ex. — They paid the man.
In the foregoing sentence, the word man seems to be
a direct object; but the real construction will be perceived
easily when the direct object is supplied.
Ex. — They paid the money to the man.
I made a kite out of paper for the boy.
It is a proposition; it is the combination of a
subject and a predicate.
It is the expression of a thought in words,
therefore it is a sentence.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one propo-
sition.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 63
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirma-
tion.
I is the simple subject; it is unmodified.
Wade is the simple predicate; it is modified by
a kite, a complex objective word element
(direct object); kite is the basis' it is modified
by a, a simple adjective word element.
Made is modified, also, by out of paper,
a simple objective phrase element (indirect
object) used to show the material used in the
construction of the kite; the basis is out of
paper ; it is not modified. Out of is a com-
plex preposition.
Made is modified also by for the- boy, a
complex objective phrase element (indirect
object) used to show for whom the action
represented by made was performed.
Note. — Verbs are often followed by several indirect
objects, differing, however, in meaning, therefore not com-
pound, but each depending directly on the verb.
EXERCISES UPON THE INDIRECT OBJECTIVE ELEMENT.
1. Mary gave her the flowers.
2. He gathered nuts for the children.
3. You are full of ambition.
4. He is worthy of your kindness.
5. They asked about going to Europe.
6. I gave clothes to the poor.
7. They paid her.
8. I worked for the public.
9. You made a quilt of silk.
10. They coin money out of silver.
64 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Write twenty sentences to illustrate the objective ele-
ment direct and indirect.
Double Object,
rule VII.
When a copulative verb, in the active voice, is followed
by a direct object, and some attribute of the direct object, the
two combined form a double object, which should be called,
in analysis, a double objective element.
The double object should be distinguished carefully
from:
1. The compound objective element, as:
I saw the comet and the morning star.
I met the man and the boy.
In these sentences either object may be omitted with-
out affecting the meaning of the other, as:
I saw the comet.
I met the boy.
I. The direct object and the indirect object, as:
I plowed the field for Mr. Jones.
I plowed the field.
I plowed for Mr. Jones.
I gave money to the poor.
I gave money.
I gave to the poor.
In this construction it is seen, also, that the omission
of one of the objects does not change in the least the
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 05
meaning of the other, but such is not true or the double
object.
In the construction of the double object, the direct
object and the attributive object are so closely related that
a separation of the one from the other makes, in most
cases, an entire change in the meaning of the sentence, as:
They called him John.
They called him.
They called John.
She walks a queen.
She walks fast.
It will be seen, readily, that the omission of the attribu-
tive objects in the foregoing sentences makes an entire
change in the meaning.
The attributive, or second object is not always a noun;
it may be:
1. A noun, as: They named her Mary.
2. An adjective, as: They made her happy.
3. A verb, as: They made her write.
The attributive object usually denotes the result of
some action upon the dire t object.
The result of the action, if it be indicated by a noun,
denotes rani; office, capacity, profession, trade, etc., as:
He anointed David (to be) king.
They appointed him chairman.
Study made him a scholar.
Idleness will make him -a pauper.
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish the attributive
E 3*
66 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
object from the indirect object. The following will aid in
making the distinction:
1. When the attributive object is a noun, it denotes
what the direct object is, or what At is supposed to be, as:
They chose her queen of the May.
I thought him a coward.
2. When the attributive object is an adjective, it shows
some quality or property belonging to the direct object,
which quality or property is the result of some action of
the subject indicated, by the verb, as:
She baked the bread brown.
It made me happy.
3. WThen the attributive object is a verb, it shows:
(1) Some &ct performed, or to be performed by the sub-
ject, as:
I heard him (to) repeat the lesson.
I told the children to play.
(2) Some action received by the direct object, as:
I caused him to be discharged.
I heard him reproved.
I saw it taken away.
Sometimes when the attribute is a noun, it is the name
(.f anew substance or material, which is the result of an
entire change of the substance or material represented by
the direct object, as:
They burned the house to ashes.
Frank broke the plate into Mty pieces.
She boiled it to jelly.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 07
The change in substance or material is produced by the
action, represented by the verb, upon the direct object.
This kind of construction assumes various forms, some
of them idiomatic and very peculiar.
Many of them, though household expressions, present
great difficulty to those who are not familiar with analysis
as:
She pumped the well dry.
I talked myself tired.
He shot the bird dead.
You must keep the coffee hot.
I worked my hands weary.
You must keep your hands clean.
The double object frequently follows a preposition, and
is governed by it, as:
For him to become a good boy seems impossible.
Note. — Some authors object to the term, double object, but they
fail to supply a better one.
The Court appointed him guardian.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation.
Court is the simple subject; it is modified
by the, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
68 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Appointed is the simp>le predicate; it is modi-
fied by him guardian, a double
objective element; him is the direct
object, and guardian is the attribu-
tive object. Guardian is an attribute
of him; and it is governed by
appointed; it requires both words
(him and guardian) to complete the
predication of the copulative verb
appointed.
Note. — In this sentence, and in many sentences con-
taining a copulative verb followed by a double object, the
conjunction as, or the infinitive to be, may be placed
before the attributive object, but they are used only to con-
nect the attributive to the direct object.
The infinitive to be is used as a copula to join the at-
tributive object to the direct object; it cannot govern an
object. The participle being is sometimes used with as.
Ex. — We regarded him as being honest.
Make His paths straight. — Bible.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
It is an imperative sentence; it expresses a command.
Ye (understood) is the subject; it is unmodified
Make is the predicate ; it is modified by
His paths straight; paths is the
direct object, modified by His, a
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 69
simple adjective word element.
Straight is the attributive object {to
be is understood); it is an adjective
attribute of paths, called an object,
because it shows the result of the
action of the verb make upon paths.
MODEL III.
I urged him to study.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation.
I is the subject, unmodified.
TJl'getil is the simple predicate; it is modified by
him to study, a double objective element.
Him is the direct object; the infinitive
to study is the attributive object; it shows
the kind of action to be performed by
the one denoted by the direct object him.
He ground it to powder.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation.
He is the subject; it is unmodified.
70 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
CrVOUtld is the simjyle predicate; it is modified by
it to powder, a double objective element.
It is the direct object, to powder is the
attributive object, which represents the
result of the action, expressed by the
verb ground, upon the direct object.
The preposition to is used to show
the relation of poioder to it.
The following sentences may be analyzed according to
models given above.
EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS.
1. They called him traitor.
2. Henry considered himself' a good marksman.
3. His parents named him Samuel.
4. I thought him faithful.
5. They elected Pierce president.
6. You made him angry.
7. She swept the floor clean.
8. It struck the man dumb.
9. He painted the house white.
10. She dyed the cloth blue.
11. The boy made him cry.
12. She kept his supper warm.
13. Make the sleeve large.
14. She caused it to be destroyed.
15. She made him destroy it.
16. It turned his hair gray.
17. I considered him a good boy.
18. He ate the plate empty.
19. The sky greio a beautiful red.
20. Consider the case
Write original sentences, to illustrate the double object
in the different forms.
the simple sentence. 71
The Adverbial Element.
rule VIII.
A word used to modify the meaning of a verb, a parti-
ciple, an adjective, or an adverb, by denoting time, place,
manner, or degree, should be called, in analysis, an
adverbial word element.
The adverbial element is not necessary to complete the
meaning of the element which it modifies; but it adds
strength and elegance to composition, and aids in making
the thought clear and definite.
Adverbial word elements (adverbs) are so numerous,
and so various in use that almost any desirable shade of
meaning may be given to a thought, or an expression.
Ex. — I want to go (the infinitive unmodified).
I want to go now.
I want to go then.
I want to go soon.
I want to go sometimes.
I want to go early.
I want to go late.
I want to go often.
I want to go there.
I want to go yonder.
I want to go somewhere.
I want to go abroad.
I want to go hence.
I want to go fast.
I want to go sloioly.
I want to go fearlessly.
I want to go cheerfully.
I do not want to go.
SYNTAX A XI) ANALYSIS.
Classes of Adverbs.
Adverbs of Time.
Adverbs of time answer the questions, when ? hoxo
long ? how often ? as :
When?
now
then
How often?
twice
thrice
How long?
always
everlastingly
soon
often
forever
late
seldom
forevermore
early
lately
shortly
already
hitherto
afterward
again
yearly-
quarterly
monthly
weekly
daily
eternally
unceasingly
finally
recently
formerly
previously
hereafter
hourly
annually
continually
frequently
ever
occasionally
never
incessantly
nevermore
repeatedly
Adverbs of Place.
Adverbs of place answer the questions
whence?
EXAMPLES.
Where? Whither?
, where? whither?
Whence?
here
yonder
hither
there
thither
homeward
eastward
westward
erl
ad
Whence is prop-
y answered by
verbial phrases.
anywhere
everywhere
northward
southward
somewhere
nowhere
upward
downward
THE SI3IPLE SENTENCE. 73
Adoerbs of place are not numerous; adverbial phrases
are generally used to answer inquiries for place.
Adverbs of Cause and of Purpose,
There are in reality no adverbs of cause or of purpose,
but there are a few that inquire for a cause or a purpose,
as:
Why? wherefore? and some phrases, as : On what
account? For what reason?
Adverbial phrases or clauses must be used to answer
such questions.
Ex. — Why did you come to town?
I came to buy provisions for the workmen.
I came because you sent for me.
Adverbs of Manner,
Adverbs of manner answer the question, how?
Ex. — How does she ride?
She rides gracefully.
Adverbs of manner are very numerous; and many of
them are derived from qualifying adjectives.
The most of these end in lyy as:
softly
worthily
elegantly
sweetly
loftily
beautifully
nobly
sinfully
perniciously
wisely
charmingly
adequately
freely
fearfully
sorrowfully
swiftly
joyfully
admirably
slowly
cheerfully
violently
greatly
wofully
uniformly
gently
selfishly
exquisitely
badly
4
cunningly
74 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
The words well, ill, hard, fast, loud, and some others
are used, both as adjectives and as adverbs. It is not diffi-
cult to make the distinction.
When used to modify nouns, they are adjectives, as:
Ex. — A well man. — Webster's Dictionary.
Is your father well, the old man of whom ye spake? —
Genesis xliii, 27.
It was well with us in Egypt. — Numbers xi, 18.
Your friends are well. — Shakespeare.
He followed the fortunes of that family and was well
(in favor) with Henry the Fourth. — Dryden.
There's some ill planet reigns. — Shakespeare.
That's an ill phrase. — Shakespeare.
Ill ways, ill markets, ill neighbors. — Bacon.
He is very ill.
An ill wind. — John Tusser, an English author.
A loud noise, a loud voice.
A fast horse, a fast lock.
A hard apple, a hard time.
When used to modify verbs, they are adverbs, as:
He writes icell.
Ill fares the land. — Goldsmith.
They sing loud.
The horse runs fast.
She works hard.
Well is used more frequently as an adverb than as an
adjective.
Ill is not used so much as an adjective in America as it
is in England. — See Alfred Ayres, in "The Verbalist."
Note. — Both well and ill are used as predicate adjec-
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
tives, perhaps more frequently than as modifiers, though,
as it has been seen, they are used in both constructions.
Under the head of adverbs of manner may be classed
such words as: headlong, helter-skelter, pell-mell, asunder,
lengthwise, and some others.
Adverbs of Degree and of Quantity.
Adverbs of degree and of quantity answer the question,
how much?
Ex. — It is very cold.
You knew it well
Among the adverbs of degree and quantity in constant
use are the following:
as
almost
somewhat
tolerably
so
little
however
exceedingly
too
vastly
scarcely
excessively
quite
greatly
nearly
eminently
much
hardly
entirely
extremely
more
wholly
equally
sufficiently
most
rather
partially
altogether
less
very
largely
especially
least
absurdly
Adverbs of degree and of quantity are used to limit
adjectives and other adverbs.
Modal Adverbs.
Some adverbs modify an entire clause, and, sometimes,
even an entire sentence.
These adverbs are called modal adverbs, because they
modify the manner of the assertion.
76 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
They give peculiar shades of meaning, affecting the
degree of certainty or of uncertainty with which a state-
ment is made.
Begilining with absolute denial, they may be arranged
as follows:
Nay, no, not, no wise.
Possibly.
Perhaps, may be, likely, perchance, peradventure, may-
hap, haply, etc.
Probably.
Yea, yes, verily, truly, surely, indeed, doubtless, cer-
tainly, assuredly, forsooth.
Adverbs of negation are not numerous.
The first remove from absolute denial is indicated by
possibly, a word which has no exact synonym in the Ian -
guage.
The words in the series beginning with perhaps seem
to occupy a place midway between absolute denial and
absolute certainty.
Probably has no exact synonym in the language. It
indicates only a slight remove from certainty.
Adverbs denoting absolute certainty are somewhat
numerous, and many of them are used with yes to make an
expression emphatic.
Note. — In the use of the words possibly and probably,
great care should be taken to make the proper distinction
between them.
Possibly modifies an entire expression by denoting that
there is only a little evidence of the existence of what is
stated.
Probably modifies an entire expression by denoting
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 77
that there is a great deal of evidence of the existence of
what is stated.
In the following sentences, it will be clearly seen that
the modal adverb in each does not limit one word alone,
but that it affects the entire sentence.
Do you think it will rain to-day?
I do not think it will rain to-day.
Not, in the sentence above, does not modify think; the
speaker does not mean to say, I do not think, but, I do not
think it will rain to-day.
You will not go to town to-day, only to buy him a
knife.
Yes, I will go to town to-day, only to buy him a knife.
In the last two sentences it is evident that the adverbs
not and yes belong to the entire expression, and not to one
word alone.
The negative modal adverb no, derived from na or ne-a,
must not be confounded with adjective no, a shortened
form of none.
The modal adverbs, excepting not, are usually separated
by a comma, or commas, from the rest of the sentence.
Remarks on other Adverbs,
The words now, well, and why are often used entirely
out of their ordinary signification, having no grammatical
relation to other words. They are then called indepen-
dent adverbs,
Ex. — Well, I am satisfied with what I have.
The independent adverb should be separated by a
comma from the rest of the sentence.
78 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
The word ago is often used as an adverb, as:
He left long ago.
It is, however, an old form of the past participle
(agone) of the verb go, and is generally used as an adjec-
tive, as:
He left a year ago.
He left a long time ago.
In each of the foregoing sentences, ago modifies the
noun which it follows.
When an adverb is used as the subsequent term of a
preposition, it has the construction of a noun, as:
For this once.
From here to there.
The word there is often used to introduce a sentence,
when the subject follows the verb; it is then an expletive.
It is used only for the sake of euphony, and is not to
be considered or disposed of as an element in analysis.
The word like is used incorrectly, by some writers, to
introduce an adverbial element denoting resemblance in
the manner of performing actions, as:
It came like a whirlwind.
Like cannot be used to denote resemblance of actions,,
therefore, as should be the connective, as:
It came as a whirlwind (comes).
Like should be used only in reference to resemblance of
objects.
John is like his father.
My hat is like yours.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. • 79
Like is generally used as a predicate adjective, and a
preposition is always understood, followed by a noun in
the objective.
In the sentence:
I am like him,
it is readily seen that the use of the objective pronoun
him is correct; it is governed by to understood; but in the
following:
I write like him
the incorrectness will be perceived at once; one cannot
say I write like him writes — it would be absurd. The fol-
lowing is the correct form:
I write as he does, or, as he writes.
In the following, however, like is an adverb, used to
modify the entire clause following it:
Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth
them that fear him.
Adverbs may modify a phrase or an entire clause.
Ex. — Come to me (infinitive unmodified).
Come near to me.
Deep into that darkness peering. — Poe.
Far from the madding crowd's ignoble swag.
— Gray.
Mary came after the bell had rung (clause un-
modified).
Mary came SOOII after the bell had rung.
80 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
Perhaps he will go there more willingly hereafter.
It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in
words.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation.
He is the subject; it represents that about
which something is affirmed; it is not
modified.
Will go is the simple predicate ; it represents
what is said of the subject; it is modified
by there, a simple adverbial word ele-
ment denoting place; it is modified al><>
by more willingly, a complex adverbial
word element denoting manner ; will-
ingly is the basis; it is modified by more,
a simple adverbial word element of
degree. Will go is further modified by
hereafter, an adverbial word element of
time.
The entire sentence is modified by
perhaps, a simple adverbial word element,
a modal adverb.
In the model given above each class of adverbs is
represented.
Write ten sentences, each containing two adverbs of
different classes.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 81
Adverbial Phrase Element.
Any phrase joined to a verb, a participle, an adjective,
or an adverb, to denote time, place, cause, manner, or
degree, should be called, in analysis, an adverbial phrase
element.
The phrase used as an adverbial modifier gives a great
variety of shades to the meaning of an expression.
The phrase element is more definite than the word ele-
ment. In the sentence,
You must come early,
the word early is very indefinite; for, to the farmer it may
mean before sunrise; but, to the man who lives in a town
or a city, and to people in general, it has a different mean-
ing. In the following, however,
You must come at daybreak,
Yon must come at seven o'clock,
You must come at noon,
there is no possibility of mistaking the meaning.
Adverbial Phrases denoting Time.
Adverbial phrases denoting time are numerous. The
different relations of time (antecedent, simultaneous, sub-
sequent, and duration) are indicated by the following
prepositions:
ere
through
for
throughout
from
till
in
toward
on
until
over
with
since
within
82 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
at
after
before
between
betwixt
by
during
Between and betwixt, when used to show a relation of
time, refer to two points.
Ex. — I shall leave between daybreak and sunrise.
During should be used only when an entire period of
time is referred to.
Ex. — I shall remain during the month (all the month).
The words yesterday, to-day, and to-morroxo are, by
some classed, with the adverbial word elements; but they
are not adverbs; they are nouns in the objective case,
governed by a preposition, either expressed or understood.
With the preposition they form adverbial phrase elements
of time.
Ex. — I shall go (on) to-morrow.
Before the names of the days of the week on is
usually either expressed or understood, and in, before the
names of the months and the years, as:
She came on Monday.
She will leave in June.
There were four eclipses in 1883.
Other prepositions are used with such nouns, also, to
indicate certain relations, as:
Since Monday.
Until June.
During the week.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 83
In the following the preposition is omitted:
It will last a second.
It will last two hours.
It will last all day.
It will last a week.
It will last two months.
It will last ten years.
It will last a lifetime.
It will last a century.
Either for or during may be supplied before each
noun, in the foregoing* sentences.
MODEL FOE ANALYSIS.
They zoaited tioo days.
It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in
words.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation.
Tliey is the subject; it represents that about
which something is affirmed; it is un-
modified.
Waited is the simple predicate; it is modified by
two days, a complex adverbial phrase
element denoting duration of time / the
preposition (for or during) is understood;
days is the basis; it is modified by two, a
simple adjective word element.
84 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
EXERCISES UPON THE ADVERBIAL PHRASE DENOTING TIME.
Go at once.
Come to-morrow.
We are to leave at daybreak.
. The ship sailed last week.
He remained a month.
The boy stayed two hours.
I saw it in 1883.
She will remain through the year.
The snow fell throughout the night.
Write sentences illustrating the use of the phrase ele-
ment of time.
Adverbial Phrases Denoting Place.
Adverbial phrases denoting place are very numerous.
They add greatly to variety of expression, and, also
give definitiveness to a statement which the word element
cannot give, as will be seen by comparison:
Where is my knife?
It is here; it is there; it is yonder; — word element.
No explanation is required to show the indefiniteness
of the words, here, there, and yonder, for they are house-
hold words, which cause a great amount of annoyance in
every-day life.
In the following ^>hrase elements, the statements are
definite :
Where is my hat?
It is on the table.
It is in the basket.
It is under the chair.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
85
Adverbial phrases denoting place are introduced by tne
following prepositions, and some others:
at
betwixt
from
throughout
along
before
in — into
up — upon
against
behind
of —out of
under
aboard
beneath
to
underneath
by
down
through
within
between
without
Care should be taken to use the right preposition to
indicate a relation of place — say, I went into the house, not
I went in the house.
Some of the relations of place indicated by prepositions
are the following:
At denotes nearness in respect to locality — I was at
home; I was at the gate; I was at church.
Along denotes continuation in a horizontal direction —
I went along the road.
Toward and towards denote direction in a general
way — I looked toward the mountain; 1 went towards the
house.
To denotes a limit reached — I went to the house.
Into denotes entrance — I went into the house.
In and 'within denote locality within limits — I was in
the house; I was within twenty miles of the place.
The preposition is sometimes omitted before nouns
■denoting place — I went (to) home.
86 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
MODKL FOR ANALYSIS.
He walked along the shore.
It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in
words.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation.
He is the subject; it is unmodified.
Walked is the simple predicate; it is modified by
along the shore, a complex adverbial
phrase element of place, denoting con-
tinuation in a horizontal direction; along
shore is the basis; shore is modified by
the, a simple adjective word element.
EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL PHRASES DENOTING PLACE.
He lived at home.
He drove along the road.
She walked before me.
I can see it from my window.
John sat in the arm chair.
Mary walked into the room.
She walked in the room.
Henry went through the orchard.
He lay on the ground.
They are up stairs.
The man sat upon the bench.
The book is on the table.
Write twenty sentences to illustrate the various rela-
tions of place indicated by different prepositions.
the simple sentence. 87
Adverbial Phrases Demoting Cause, Source and
Purpose.
Phrases denoting cause, source, and purpose are not
numerous.
They answer questions of what? from what cause or
source? on account of tohatf why? toherefore?
Ex. — He died of fever.
The boy suffered from thirst.
She did not go for want of means.
They went to Europe to study in the universities.
Wherefore is seldom used, excepting in poetry.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
The woman died of grief.
It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in
words.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation.
Woman, is the simple subject ; it is modified by
the, a simple adjective word element.
Died is the simple predicate; it is modified by
of grief, a simple adverbial phrase ele-
ment denoting cause.
EXERCISE UPON- PHRASES DENOTING CAUSE, SOURCE AND
PURPOSE.
She wept for joy.
They suffered from hunger.
He went to town to buy a hat.
They traveled for pleasure.
88 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
He was rewarded for diligence.
He was punished for disobedience.
She went to hear the lecture.
The boy worked for money.
The boy worked to support the family.
The girl fainted from fright.
They died from exposure.
I went to get a book.
Note. — The inseparable phrase, in order, followed by
an infinitive, is often used to show the relations of purpose.
Ex. — She went to the country in order to rest.
Write sentences to illustrate the use of adverbial
phrases of cause, source and purpose.
Adverbial Phrases Denoting Manner.
Adverbial phrases of manner are numerous, and they
vary materially in use.
Under the head of adverbial phrases denoting manner,
are classed commonly, phrases denoting:
TJ ,, . - , ( He managed his business
How a thing is performed ■{ .,, & 7
n l I with prudence.
Accompaniment He went with the Master.
Agency It was built by Solomon.
fit is said by astronomers
. ., ., / that there will be four
Authority < ,. ,,
J eclipses in the year
[ 1883.
i' He succeeded by fraud.
Means -< She became independent
by industry.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 89
fThe tree was killed by
T , , liqhtninq.
Instrument < ^ \ ■ ■> J , •,, ,7
] 1 he bird was killed by an
[ arrow.
Measure of time John is ten years old.
Measure of length or distance., -j ™e rod ^ four feet long.
CT ( It is six miles farther.
Degree She is cautious to excess.
In phrases denoting age or measurement, the prepo-
sition is seldom expressed.
In the sentence, John is ten years old, the adjective old
is modified by ten years, an adverbial phrase element
denoting measure of time; the preposition by is under-
stood,— by ten years.
And in the sentence, The rod is four feet long, the
adjective long is modified by four feet, an adverbial phrase
element, denoting measure of length; and in the sentence,
It is four miles farther, the adjective farther is modified
by six miles, an adverbial phrase element denoting meas-
urement of distance, equivalent to by six miles.
In elements of measurement, both of time, length and
distance, the idea of degree is prominent.
Adverbial phrases denoting modes of travel or convey-
ance are classed with those of manner, as:
on foot; on horseback; by railroad; by steamer; by
express; in a wagon; in a carriage; in a balloon.
Phrases used as modal adverbs give great emphasis:
Ex. — by no means, by all means,
in no wise, without doubt,
in no case, with certainty,
on no condition, beyond doubt,
in great doubt, in reality,
in fact.
4*
90 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
All phrases of asseveration and appeal, and every
expression having the nature of an oath, are classed under
the head of modal adverbial phrases, as:
Asseveration, On my honor ; on my xoord of honor.
Appeal, By your love for your country; by the
memory of your mother; by all you
hold dear.
Oath, By Jupiter; by the immortal gods.
By Mohammed, Prophet of Allah.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
On my honor, I have told you everything about it.
It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in
words.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation.
I is the subject, unmodified.
Have told is the simple predicate; it is modified
by everything about it, a complex
objective word element (direct object),
everything is the basis, modified by the
simple adjective phrase element, about
it.
Have told is modified, also, by you,
an indirect objective phrase element.
The entire expression is modified
by the inseparable phrase, on my
honor, an adverbial phrase element of
asseveration.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 91
EXERCISE UPON ADVERBIAL PHRASES OF MANNER.
He conducted the campaign with great skill.
The men completed the work with promptness.
The children went to church regularly with their
parents.
A wall six feet high was built around it.
The Temple was built by Solomon.
A boy killed a bird loith a stone.
John killed an owl with an arrow.
The fact is stated by a London newspaper.
He is four years older.
It is three miles farther.
He succeeded by industry and perseverance.
Note. — Adverbial phrases denoting manner, showing
how anything is done, are, the most of them, equivalent to
adverbs of manner, as:
with prudence --prudently.
with skill ^skillfully.
Write sentences to illustrate the adverbial phrase ele-
ment in its various uses.
EXERCISE UPON SIMPLE SENTENCES.
1. Praise ye the Lord!
2. Procrastination is the thief of time. — Young.
3. It was an eve of Autumn's holiest mood. — Pollok.
4. Man's inhumanity to man
Makes countless thousands mourn. — Burns.
o. He became eminent.
8. It was a rosy boy, a little copy of his faithful sire.
92 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
7. Well had he slept, never to waken more!
8. The huge pile sunk down at once into the opening
earth.
9. Nay, good my lord, try him.
10. The following night the moon took her station still
higher.
11. The Lord is my shepherd.
12. Nature seemed
In silent contemplation, to adore
Its Maker. — Pollok.
13. Concentration is the secret of strength.
14. The heavens declare the glory of God.
15. I am going, O Nokomis,
On a long and distant journey,
To the portals of the Sunset. — Hiawatha.
16. All was silent again. — Longfellow.
17. The conscious stone to beauty grew. — Emerson.
18. I am monarch of all. — Oowper.
19. Come gentle spring! — Thomson.
20. Go!
RULES OF SYNTAX.
Rule I. — The subject of a finite verb must be in the
nominative case.
Rule II. — The noun or pronoun connected to the sub-
ject of a finite verb, by the copula, must be in the nomina-
tive case.
Rule III. — The adjective connected by the copula to
the subject must represent some characteristic property of
the subject.
RULES OF SYNTAX. 93
Rule IV. — The verbal attribute connected to the sub-
ject by the copula must represent some action or state
natural to the subject.
Rule V. — The attribute of a proposition, whether sub-
stantive adjective, or verbal, must agree with the subject,
when joined to it by a copulative verb.
Rule VI. — A verb must agree with its subject in per-
son and number:
1. The verb must be plural when the members
of a compound subject are taken conjointly.
2. The verb must be singular, when the mem-
bers of the compound subject are taken separately,
if the members are each in the singular number.
3. If one of the members is plural, and the
other, or others, singular, the verb must agree with
the one next to it.
Rule VII. — Adjectives are used to limit nouns only.
Rule VIII. — A noun or pronoun joined to another
noun, to denote possession, must be in the possessive case.
Rule IX. — A noun or pronoun used with another noun
or pronoun, to identify, or to explain, or by way of empha-
sis, is put by apposition in the same case as that of the
noun which it limits.
Rule X. — Participles are used to modify nouns and
pronouns, but they retain the signification of the verb, and
may be modified as the verb.
Rule XI. — Pronouns must agree in gender, number
and person with their antecedent.
94 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Rule XII. — A noun or a pronoun used to complete the
meaning" of a transitive verb, or the participles of a tran-
sitive verb, must be in the objective case.
Rule XIII. — Adverbs are used to modify verbs, parti-
ciples, adjectives and other adverbs.
Rule XIV. — Prepositions are used to show the relation
of a noun or a pronoun to some other word in the sentence.
Rule XV. — The noun or pronoun governed by the
preposition must be in the objective case.
Rule XVI. — Coordinate conjunctions are used to join
elements of the same rank.
Rule XVII. — Subordinate conjunctions are used to
join elements of different rank.
Rule XVIII. — The infinitive has the signification and
modifications of the verb, but is used as a noun or an
adjective.
Rule XIX. — Independent elements, including inter-
jections, have no grammatical relation to the sentence
which they accompany.
RULES OF ANALYSIS.
Rule I. — Any word, whether it be an adjective, a noun,
or a pronoun, when joined to the subject to limit or qualify
it, must be called, in analysis, an adjective word element.
Rule II. — A noun or a personal pronoun in apposition
with another pronoun, must be in the same case; and, in
analysis, it should be called an adjective word element.
Rule III. — A noun or a pronoun used to limit a noun
in any construction, by denoting possession, must be called,
in analysis, an adjective word element.
RULES OP ANALYSIS. 95
Rule IV. — A preposition and its object, or an infinitive
may be used to limit the meaning of a noun, and in analy-
sis should be called an adjective phrase element.
Rule V. — A word used to complete the meaning of a
transitive verb or its participles, is in the objective case,
and, in analysis, should be called an objective word ele-
ment.
Rule VI. — A noun or a pronoun used with a preposition
to complete the meaning of a verb, should be called, in
analysis, an objective phrase element (indirect object).
Rule VII . — When a copulative verb in the active voice
is followed by a direct object, and some attribute of the
direct object, the two combined form a double object,
which should be called, in analysis, a double objective ele-
ment.
Rule VIII. — A word used to modify the meaning of a
verb by denoting time, place, manner, degree, should be
called, in analysis, an adverbial word element.
Rule IX. — Any phrase joined to a verb, a participle,
an adjective, or an adverb, to denote time, place, cause,
manner, or degree, should be called, in analysis, an adver-
bial phrase element.
Rule X. — Whenever a substantive clause is used as
the subject of a proposition, it should be called, in analysis,
a clause subject, and should be disposed of as a noun.
Rule XL — Whenever the substantive clause is used as
the attribute of a proposition, it should be called, in analy-
sis, a substantive clause attribute, and should be disposed
of as a noun.
Rule XII. — When a clause is used to modify a noun or
a pronoun, or any substantive expression, it should be
called, in analysis, an adjective clause element.
yb SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Rule XIII. — When an adverb is used to join a depend-
ent clause to a noun in the principal proposition, it should
be called a relative adverb; and the clause so joined should
be called, in analysis, an adjective clause element.
Rule XIV. — When a clause is used to limit a noun by
denoting apposition, it should be called, in analysis, an
adjective clause element.
Rule XV. — When a substantive clause is used to com-
plete the meaning of a verb, it is in the objective case,
and, in analysis, should be called an objective clause ele-
ment.
Rule XVI. — When a clause is used to modify the
meaning of a verb, a participle, an adjective or an adverb,
by denoting time, place, cause, manner, or degree, it should
be called, in analysis, an adverbial clause element.
Rule XVII. — When a sentence contains an abridged
proposition, it should be called a simple sentence, unless it
contains a subordinate proposition also.
Rule XVIII. — When a sentence is composed of inde-
pendent propositions connected by and, or, nor, it should
be called, in analysis, a compound sentence.
Rule XIX. — When a sentence consists of a compound
subject and a simple predicate, or of a simple subject and
a compound predicate, it should be called, in analysis, a
partially compound sentence.
THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 97
THE CLAUSE ELEMENT.
A Clause is a group of words containing a subject
and a, predicate used as a sentence element.
The term clause should not be applied to the principal
proposition in a sentence, but should be restricted to a
proposition which does not express an entire thought.
A clause should not be called a sentence, as it is an
element only; but a sentence is. the complete expression of
a thought in words, either spoken or written.
The clause element may enter into the construc-
tion of a sentence, as:
1. Subject.
2. Attribute.
3. Adjective element.
4. Objective element.
5. Adverbial element.
Clauses are divided according to their use in the con-
struction of sentences into three classes:
1. Substantive Clauses.
2. Adjective Clauses.
3. Adverbial Clauses.
In the construction of sentences, the clause is used as
the part of speech for which it is named, is used.
The substantive clause is used as a noun:
1. Subject nominative:
That you are doing your duty is evident.
2. Predicate nominative:
The report was, that the ship was lost in a storm.
98 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
3. Apposition:
The report, that the ship was lost in a storm,
was false.
4. Object of a verb:
I think that the lecture will be entertaining.
5. Object of a preposition:
Save that from yonder ivy-mantled toioer, etc.
The adjective clause is used to limit the meaning of a
noun, and, in many cases, may be changed to an adjective
without changing the meaning.
Ex. — A boy who is idle will never excel, — an idle
boy will never excel.
An adverbial clause is used to modify the meaning of
verbs, participles, adjectives and adverbs.
Ex. — Go tohen the sun rises.
He, leaving before the sun rose, did not see the
burning of the mill.
You are taller than your brother.
They fought as bravely as their commanders.
Substantive Clause Used as Subject.
Whenever a substantive clause is used as the subject of
a proposition, it should be called, in analysis, a clause
subject, and should be disposed of as a noun.
The clause subject should be treated as a single
word, until after the sentence is analyzed; then it should
be resolved into its component parts.
THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 99
A sentence containing a clause subject is not a com-
plex sentence, unless it contain a subordinate clause used
as a modifier, for the subject cannot be subordinate to any
part of the sentence.
The clause subject is commonly introduced by that, as:
That they are not satisfied is evident.
Any kind of clause, however, may be used substan-
tively, as subject, if it is a quotation, as:
Why are you dissatisfied? was my question.
Where thou goest, I will go, was the reply.
The expletive it is often used to introduce sentences
having clause subjects, as:
It is evident that they are dissatisfied.
The clause subject should not be separated from the
predicate by any mark of punctuation, when introduced by
that.
MODEL.
That the world is full of beauty cannot be denied.
This is a simple declarative sentence.
That the world
is full of beauty is the simple subject; it is
unmodified.
Can be denied is the simple predicate.
Not is a modal adverb; it modifies
the entire assertion.
The clause subject, That the world is full of beauty, is
introduced by that, a word which has no modifying power.
It is not a connective, for the subject of a proposition can-
not be subordinate to any part of a sentence.
100 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Wovld is the simple subject; it is modified by the,
a simple adjective word element.
Is full is the simple predicate. Ts is the copula,
and full is the adjective attribute. Full
is modified by of beauty, an objective
phrase element.
EXERCISE UPON THE CLAUSE AS SUBJECT.
1. Oh, where shall rest be found? has been the cry of
many a weary soul.
2. When one should be silent is not easily decided.
3. That I should have taken your advice is now very-
clear.
4. Whether he will remain until his brother arrives is
doubtful.
5. Where have you been? was his question.
6. That John has acted very indiscreetly is not to be
denied.
7. May I leave the room? was his request.
8. That the Scriptures were given by inspiration is
very evident to one who is earnestly seeking for truth.
9. That the Creator intended to make his creatures
happy is proved by his causing the land and the waters,
the air, and even the lightning to serve them.
10. " I have been where you sent me " was my reply.
11. That he should have acted in such a way is very
strange.
12. It is decided that the journey will be too long for
her.
13. It is hoped that the change will benefit him.
14. It is said that he spent a large fortune.
16. That he has succeeded so well is surprising.
THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 101
EXERCISES.
Write ten sentences containing clause subject.
Substantive Clause as Attribute.
Whenever the substantive clause is used as the attribute
of a proposition, it should be called, in analysis, a sub-
stantive clause attribute.
The clause attribute is joined to the subject by
the copula, just as a word or a phrase attribute is joined.
Ex. — My opinion is,that he deserves the reward for
good conduct.
The word that is commonly used to introduce the
clause attribute; but it has no conjunctive force; it is used
merely to introduce the clause.
Direct quotations are frequently used as clause attri-
butes.
Ex. — The question was, Where did you find it?
Sentences containing clause attributes are simple sen-
tences, if no clause used as a modifier is found in them.
The clause attribute should be separated from the
copula by a comma.
102
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
MODEL I.
The song was, Oh where shall rest be found.
It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition.
It is a mixed sentence; it consists of a declarative
proposition, and an interrogative proposition.
The first part of the sentence, including the predicate
verb (copula) is declarative; the predicate nominative is
interrogative.
The predicate nominative, or substantive attribute,
Oh, where shall rest be found? is direct quotation.
Song
Was, Oh where
shall rest be
found ?
Oh where shall
rest be found ?
Rest
is the subject ; it is that of
which the substantive attribute,
Oh, where shall rest be found,
is asserted by the copula, was.
It is modified by the, a
simple adjective word element.
is the predicate ; was is the
copula; Oh where shall rest be
found? is the substantive at-
tribute, used to represent the
subject in another form.
The predicate is not modi-
fied.
the attribute of the proposition,
when considered alone, is an
interrogative sentence; it is
used to ask a question,
is the subject; it is unmodified.
THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 103
Shall be found is the simple predicate; it is
that which is asserted of the
subject it is modified by; where,
an adverbial word element de-
noting place; it is also used to
ask the question.
Oh is an interjection ; it has no
grammatical relation to any
word in the sentence, yet its
use, simultaneous with the sen-
tence, shows the emotional
nature of the question.
MODEL II.
His complaint was, that the cattle had destroyed his field
of com.
It is a simple declarative sentence.
Complaint is the simple subject; it
is modified by his, a
simple adjective word
element.
Was, that the cattle
had destroyed his
field of com is the simple predicate;
it is unmodified. Was
is the copula; that the
cattle had destroyed his
field of corn, is the sub-
stantive attribute.
Cattle is the simple subject of
the substantive clause; it
is modified by the, a
simple adjective word
element.
104 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Mad destroyed is the simple predicate; it is
modified by the complex direct
objective word element, his field
of com, of which field is the
basis, limited by his, a simple
adjective word element, and,
also, by of com, a simple adjec-
tive phrase element.
That is used simply to introduce the
substantive clause.
EXERCISE UPON THE CLAUSE AS ATTRIBUTE.
1. The important question now is, Where shall I go?
2. His threat was, that he would punish the * boy
severely.
3. My desire is, that you remain until next week.
4. His text was, The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not
want.
5. John's excuse will be, that the key could not be
found.
6. The telegram was, " We have crossed the mountains
without difficulty."
7. Our expectation is, that the steamboat will arrive to-
night.
8. Her remark was, "I cannot endure the severity of
the Northern winters."
9. My hope is, that the voyage will benefit her health.
10. The result will be that he will lose his position.
11. The command was, Shoidder arms!
12. The consequence will be that all his friends will
desert him.
THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 105
13. My question was, "Why did you not return
sooner?"
14. For the last hundred years, one of the first facts
taught to any child of American birth is, that Jefferson
wrote the Declaration of Independence.
15. The wonder is, that the skies should continue so
resplendent for months.
16. The statement of the philosophers is, that the
phenomenon cannot be accounted for.
17. The superstition is, that it is an omen of evil.
Complex Sentences.
Complex sentences consist of at least two propo-
sitions, one of which is an independent or principal propo-
sition, and one dependent or subordinate.
Ex. — I must go, if you cannot.
In complex sentences, the dependent proposition is
always a modifier of the principal proposition, or of some
part of it; and should be called a subordinate clause.
Ex. — The nuts which the children are gathering
tinder the tree yonder are chestnuts.
In this sentence the clause introduced by which modi-
fies nuts; but in the following, the dependent clause modi-
fies the entire principal proposition.
Ex. — Praise ye the Lord, for He is good; for His
mercy endureth forever.
Complex sentences may contain several subordinate
clauses; and these clauses may be of different kinds.
Ex. — I told him that he must return at noon because
the man who wanted to employ him would
be here at that time.
106 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
In the sentence given there are four propositions, one
principal and three subordinate; an objective clause, intro-
duced by that; an adverbial clause introduced by because,
and an adjective clause introduced by who.
The clause used as subject, and the clause used as at-
tribute, as it has been explained before, are not modifiers,
therefore they do not make a sentence complex.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
Adjective Clauses Introduced by Relative Pronouns.
rule XII.
When a clause is used to modify a noun or a pronoun,
or any substantive expression, it should be called, in analy-
sis, an adjective clause element.
Many of the clauses used to modify nouns are intro-
duced by relative pronouns, which relate to some noun or
pronoun in the principal proposition, called the antecedent.
Relative pronouns are never found in independent
propositions; but they are sometimes retained, when the
subordinate clause is abridged.
Ex. — I have no friend in whom I can confide (full form).
I have no friend in whom to confide (abridged form).
The simple relative pronouns are: ivllO, which,
that, ivhat, as, and but.
In the construction of sentences, xoho is used to refer
to persons only, except in the case of personification.
Ex. — O Moon, thou who art queen of the night.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 107
Which refers to things. It is used, also, to refer to
persons taken collectively, and in interrogative sentences.
Ex. — The committee which was appointed.
Which boy took the prize?
That may be used with equal propriety to refer to per-
sons or things.
Ex. — I saw the man that sold the horse.
I saw the money that he paid for the horse.
In the construction of sentences, that is to be preferred
to who or which, in the following cases:
1. After who, for the sake of euphony.
Ex. — Who that sees the glorious heavens by night,
etc.
2. After, very, same, all.
Ex. — He is the very man that I wish to see.
This is the same book that you borrowed.
These are all that you need.
3. After adjectives in the superlative degree.
Ex. — These are the best peaches that I ever saw.
4. When the pronoun it is used as subject, to represent
a noun or a pronoun of any person, number, or gender,
used as a substantive attribute.
Ex. — It was John that broke the pitcher.
It was my neighbor's chickens that spoiled my
garden.
5. When both persons and things are referred to.
Ex. — The men and the horses that were on the boat
were saved.
108 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
What refers to things, but it may be used as an inter-
rogative adjective to inquire for persons.
Ex. — What bovs were found in the orchard?
What is always a word of double construction, when it
is used as a relative pronoun.
As, after many, much, same, and such, is a relative pro-
noun.
Ex. — He gave me as many as I wanted.
I took as much as I could use.
It is the same as it was before.
And the Lord added to the church daily, such
as should be saved. — Bible.
Such as I have give I thee. — Bible.
Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower
The moping owl doth to the moon complain
Of such as wandering near her secret bower,
Molest her ancient, solitary reign.
The word as, in the third line of the stanza above, is a
relative pronoun, used to join the subordinate clause to
such, its antecedent, and it is also, the subject of the verb
molest.
When but is used as a relative pronoun it gives a nega-
tive idea to the clause which it introduces.
Ex. — There is no rose but has its thorn =There is
no rose which has not its thorn.
The word but, in the following, is used in two clauses
as a relative pronoun.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 109
There is no lily of field or vale
But shows the touch of Art Divine,
No sparrow that flies o'er hill or dale
But sings protection for me and mine.
As and but are both restrictive, therefore they should
not be separated from the antecedent by a comma.
Relative Pronouns when Restrictive and when
Not Restrictive.
The Relative Pronoun is said to be restrictive
when the clause which it introduces cannot be changed to
an independent clause, without a change in the meaning.
It limits a noun in the same way that an adjective word
element limits it.
Ex. — Plants which have been kept in a greenhouse
cannot endure even the slight frosts of
Spring, dp
Greenhouse plants cannot endure even the
slight frosts of Spring.
No comma should be placed before the relative pro-
noun when it introduces a restrictive clause.
That and as are always restrictive.
Ex. — The house that I bought yesterday is a cottage.
I will read such books as you select for me.
Many clauses, however, introduced by relative pro-
nouns, have no restrictive force.
Such clauses are sometimes called continuative, that is,
they are used to add something to the sentence; and the
relative pronoun, introducing the clause, is equivalent to
and he, and it.
110 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Ex. — He bought a fine horse, which he gave to his
son==He bought a fine horse, and he gave
it to his son.
When the clause is not restrictive, a comma should be
placed before the relative pronoun. When the relative
clause is restrictive, the antecedent of the pronoun is often
modified by some word used as a correlative of the pronoun.
The following are correlatives so used: "
The, this, that, these, those, same, such.
Ex. — The horse which he gave to his son is a fine one.
This book that lies on the table was given to me by
your brother.
The adjective clause should, if possible, be placed near
the word it modifies.
Ex. — Friendship which^ows from the heart cannot
be frozen by adversity.
It is the friendship of the heart that cannot
be frozen by adversity.
The second sentence is ambiguous on account of the
position of the relative pronoun.
MODELS FOR ANALYSIS.
MODEL I.
Blessed is he that considereth the poor.
It is a complex declarative sentence.
Blessed is he is the principal proposition.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
Ill
That considereth
the poor
He
Is Messed
That
Considereth
is the subordinate proposition.
is the simple subject of the
principal proposition ; it is
modified by that considereth
the poor, an adjective clause
element.
is the predicate; is, is the
copula, and blessed is the ad-
jective attribute.
is the subject of the subordi-
nate proposition; it is a rela-
tive pronoun, and is used also
as a connective.
is the simple predicate; it is
limited by the poor, a complex
objective word element; poor
,is the basis, modified by the, a
simple adjective word element.
MODEL II.
It was not the loss of my property that troubled me.
It is a complex declarative sentence.
It was not the loss
of my property is the principal proposition.
It is the simple subject; it is
modified by that troubled
me, an adjective clause ele-
ment.
112
Was loss
That
Troubles
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
is the simple predicate. Was is the
copula, and- loss is the substantive at-
tribute. Loss is modified by the, a
s mple adjective word element, and by
of my property, a complex adjective
phrase element ; of property is the
basis; property is modified by my, a
simple adjective word element.
is the subject of the subordinate
clause; it is used also as a connective.
is the simple predicate; it is modified
by me, a simple objective word ele-
ment.
MODEL III.
There's not a string attuned to mirth,
But has its chord in melancholy. — Hood.
It is a complex declarative sentence.
There's not a string attuned to mirth, is the principal
proposition.
But has its chord in melancholy, is the subordi.iate
proposition.
String is the simple subject of the principal
proposition; it is modified by a, an adjec-
tive word element, and by attuned to mirth,
a complex adjective word element, parti-
cipial construction. Attuned is the basis;
it is modified by to mirth, an adverbial
phrase element.
String is modified also by the adjective
clause element, But has its chord in melan-
choly.
THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 113
Is is the predicate; it denotes existence only.
The assertion is modified by not, a negative
modal adverb. There is an expletive, used to
introduce the sentence.
But
is the subject of the subordinate proposition;
it is unmodified. It is a relative pronoun; it
has a negative signification, and is equivalent
to that not.
Has is the simple predicate; it is modified by its
chord, a complex objective word element; chord
is the basis, modified by its, a simple adjective
word element. Has is also modified by in
melancholy, a simple adverbial word element
denoting place.
MODEL IV.
He found them prosperous and happy, which surprised
him greatly.
This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of
two propositions, one principal, and one subordinate propo-
sition.
He found them p>rosp>erous and happy, is the principal
proposition; which surprised him greatly is the subordi-
nate proposition.
He is the subject of the principal proposition,
unmodified.
114
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Found is the simple predicate; it is modified
by them prosperous and happy, a
double objective element; them is the
direct object; 2:>rosPerous and happy
is a compound adjective* attribute, a
predicate objective. The entire propo-
sition is the antecedent of which, (his
finding them prosperous and happy
was what surprised him,) and it is
modified by which surprised him
greatly, a simple adjective clause ele-
ment.
Which is the subject of the subordinate
clause; it is unmodified.
Surprised is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by him, a simple objective word
element, direct object; and by greatly,
a simple adverbial word element de-
notino-
Compound Relative Pronouns Used to Connect
Adjective Clauses.
The Compound Relative Pronouns are who-
ever, whosoever, whoso, whatever 9 whatso-
ever, whichever, whichsoever.
These words, when used only as relative pronouns, have
a double construction, and represent both the antecedent
and the relative.
The antecedent part of the word belongs to the princi-
pal proposition, and the relative part introduces the adjec-
tive clause.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 115
Ex. — I will send you whatever you want,=I will
send you anything which you want.
Note. — It will be seen that the word whatever is used
indefinitely, and, also, that it expresses the idea with more
force and elegance than the equivalent any thing tohich.
All the Compound Relatives are used to express uni-
versality.
Whoever =any one who.
Whatever =any thing which.
Whichever =either or any of these or those things
which.
Whatever and tohichever are frequently used as adjec-
tives, but they do not lose their office as connectives.
Ex. — They will appreciate whatever kindness you
may show them.
Whoever , lohatever and whichever are frequently used
with an adversative signification.
Ex. — Whatever the salary may be, I shall not accept
the situation.
Whoever may have told you, it is not true.
Whichever you may give him, he will not be
satisfied.
In analysis, these clauses should be called adverbial
adversative clauses.
By some authors, they are called concessive clauses.
Whatever you give will be thankfully received.
This is a complex, declarative sentence.
116
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
The antecedent part of
whatever (equiva-
lent to the thing or
the things
Will be received
You
Give
is the simple subject of the
principal proposition ; it is
modified by the adjective clause
element, which is introduced
by the relative part.
is the simple predicate; it is
modified by thankfully, an ad-
verbial element of manner,
is the subject of the subordi-
nate proposition; it is unmodi-
fied.
is the predicate; it is modified
by the relative part of the word
whatever, an objective word
element, which is used also as a
connective.
Note. — Some authors maintain that such words as the
above should not be separated into two parts; but they
fail to give a satisfactory analysis of sentences containing
them.
EXERCISES UPON THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE ELEMENT, INTRO-
DUCED BY A RELATIVE PRONOUN.
1. Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel
of the ungodly. — Psalm I.
2. Ye whose hearts are fresh and simple,
Who have faith in God and Nature,
******
Listen to this simple story. — Hiawatha.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 117
3. I picked up these particulars in the course of a
journey, which I made some time afterwards.
4. I pity the man who can travel from Dan to Beer-
sheba, and say "'TVs all barren"
5. Yonder snow-white cloud that floats in the ether
above me
Seems like a hand that is pointing and beckoning
over the ocean. — Longfellow.
6. It was a celebrated traveler that related the strange
occurrence.
7. It must have been a terrible hurricane that caused
the destruction that we see before us.
8. Whoever left it will call for it.
9. Whichever path you take will lead you to the vil-
lage.
10. The house, in which I live, is a hundred years old.
11. The long galleries were crowded with such an audi-
ence as has rarely excited the fears of an orator.
12. There's nothing bright above, below,
From flowers that bloom to stars that glow,
But in its light my soul can see
Some features of the Deity.
13. Broad and brown was the face that under the
Spanish Sombrero,
Gazed on the peaceful scene. — Longfellow.
14. The man who alarmed the children this morning, by
appearing so suddenly before them, at the door, was an
Indian chief.
118 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
15. You may have whatever you want.
16. A delightful impression is made upon the stranger
who on a bright June day enters the picturesque and
charming city of Stockholm. — Du Chaillu.
17. The lofty banner next is seen dispread,
Which bears St. Peter's keys and mitred crown.
— Tasso.
18. How many a poor one's blessing went
With thee beneath the low green tent
Whose curtain never outward swings!
— Whittier.
Write twenty sentences containing adjective clauses
introduced by relative pronouns.
Select sentences from a reader containing adjective
clauses introduced by but and as, used as relative pro-
nouns.
Adjective Clauses Introduced by a Relative
Adverb.
rule xiii.
When an adverb is used to join a dependent clause to a
noun in the principal proposition^ it should be called a
relative adverb, and the clause so joined should be
called, in analysis, an adjective clause element.
Clauses introduced by relative adverbs are always re-
strictive, and should not be separated from the principal
proposition by any mark of punctuation.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 119
Relative adverbs are equivalent to relative pronouns
preceded by a preposition.
Ex. — I visited the house where he once lived, =1 visited
the house in which he once lived.
The use of the relative adverb as a connective of adjec-
tive clauses adds smoothness and beauty to language.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
Shiloh, the place where Joshua set up the tabernacle,
and whence he sent surveyors to make a partition of the
land, was situated between Lebonah and Bethel.
It is a complex declarative sentence.
It consists of three propositions, one principal, and two
subordinate.
Shiloh, the place was situated between Lebonah and
Bethel, is the principal proposition.
Where Joshua set up the tabernacle, and whence he
sent surveyors to make a partition of the land are the sub-
ordinate propositions.
Shiloh is the simple subject of the principal
proposition. It is modified by the com-
plex adjective word element, by apposition,
the place where Joshua set up the taber-
nacle, and whence he sent surveyors to
make a partition of the land; place is the
basis; it is modified by the compound ad-
jective clause element, where Joshua set up
the tabernacle, and whence hi sent surveyors
to make a partition of the land.
120
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Where Joshua
set up the
tabernacle
is the first member of
the compound adjective
clause element. It is in-
troduced by the relative
adverb where.
Joshua
Set up
Wlience he sent sur-
veyors to make a
partition of the
land
He
is the simple subject; it
is unmodified.
is the simple predicate;
it is modified by the tab-
ernacle, a complex ob-
jective word element;
tabernacle is the basis;
it is modified by they a
simple adjective word
element.
is the second member of
the compound adjective
clause element. It is
joined to the first mem-
ber by the coordinate
copulative conjunction,
and. It is introduced
by the relative adverb
whence.
is the simple subject; it
is unmodified.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 121
Setlt is the simple predicate; it is
modified, first, by surveyors, a
simple objective word element; it
is also modified by to make a par-
tition of the land, a complex ad-
verbial phrase element, denoting-
purpose; to make is the basis,
modified by a partition of the
land, a complex objective word
element; partition is the basis; it
is modified by the simple adjective
word element «/ and also by the
complex adjective clause element,
of the land', of land is the basis;
land is modified by the, a simple
adjective word element.
Was situated is the simple predicate of the
principal proposition; it is modi-
fied by between Lebonah and
Bethel, an adverbial element of
place.
EXERCISES UPON THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY
A RELATIVE ADVERB.
1. And she's gone to the Lake of the Dismal Swamp,
Where, all night long, by a firefly lamp,
She paddles her white canoe. — Moore.
2. Blest be that spot where cheerful guests retire
To pause from toil and trim their evening fire.
— Goldsmith.
3. Patmos, where the apostle John wrote the Apoca-
lypse, is a small island in the Egean Sea.
122 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
4. Show me the place where the wild flowers grow.
5. The hour when I shall depart is very near.
6. The time when the boat will arrive is very uncertain.
7. I seek an asylum where I may end my days in peace.
8. The time comes, at last, when the sun disappears
entirely from the sight,
when the heavens appear in a blaze of light and
glory,
And the stars and moon pale before the Aurora
Borealis. — Land of the Midnight Sun.
9. I long for a home where sorrow never comes!
10. Is there no spot on earth where the weary soul may
rest?
11. The Indian loves the land where the wild fowl builds
her nest.
12. I once saw the spot where the battle was fought.
13. The boat did not land at the time when it was due.
14. The men who were traveling westward stopped at a
place where a fire was burning, to rest, and to take a little
refreshment.
15. A deep silence reigned in the house, where in times
past, the halls resounded with the sound of mirth.
16. I looked down from the mountain into a valley
where cultivated fields and magnificent gardens met the
view at every point.
17. Beautiful is that season of life when we can say, in
the language of the Scripture: "Thou hast the dew of thy
youth."
18. Sublime was the morning that liberty spoke,
And grand was the moment when Spaniards awoke.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 123
19. There's a land far away mid the stars (we are told)
Where they know not the sorrows of time.
Let the pupil write original sentences, containing ad-
jective clauses, introduced by relative adverbs, used to
modify the following words
table
moment
time
house
book
college
instant
field
bed
state
city
forest
hour
asylum
place
day
Ex. — It is on the table where the large vase is.
Select sentences from the reader to illustrate this con-
struction, i. e., the sentence containing an adjective clause
introduced by a relative adverb.
Clauses Used as Adjective Elements by Apposition.
eule XIV.
When a clause is used to limit a noun by denoting
apposition, it should be called, in analysis, an adjective
clause element.
Clauses in apposition are often introduced by that J but
the direct quotation is used, perhaps, as often.
Ex. — The remark that I had offended him, was
heard by several of my friends
Your own words, "I will pay for his educa-
tion," you seem to have forgotten.
The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars,
But in ourselves, that we are underlings.
124 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
In the foregoing sentence, the word fault is modified
by that we are underlings, a clause used as an adjective
element by apposition.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
There is a deep wisdom in the old maxim that truth
is to be found in a central point equally remote from
divergent errors.
It is a complex declarative sentence.
There is a deep wisdom in the old maxim is the
principal proposition.
That truth is to be found in a central point equally
distant from divergent errors is the subordinate proposition.
Wisdom is the simple subject; it is modified by
deep, a simple adjective word element,
the complex idea formed by the union of
the noun wisdom and the adjective deep;
deep wisdom is modified by the simple
adjective word element, a.
Is is the simple predicate; it is used to de-
note existence. It is modified by in the
old maxim that truth is to be found, etc.,
an adverbial phrase element, denoting
place; in maxim is the basis; maxim is
modified by old, a simple adjective word
element; and also by the subordinate
clause That truth is to be found, etc.,
an adjective clause element by appo-
sition.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
125
Truth
is the simple subject; it is un-
modified.
Is to be found
is the simple predicate; is, is the
copula; it is used to join the at-
tribute, to be found, to the sub-
ject truth; the infinitive attribute
(to be found) is used to denote
something possible; it is modified
by in a central point, equally dis-
tant from divergent errors, a com-
plex adverbial phrase element; in
point is the basis; point is modi-
fied by central, a simple adjective
word element; the complex idea,
central point, is modified by a, a
simple adjective word element.
Point is modified also by equally
distant from divergent errors, a
complex adjective word element;
(this is equivalent to, which is
equally distant, etc.); distant is
the basis ; it is modified by
equally, a simple adverbial word
element of degree; distant is
modified, also, by from divergent
errors, an adverbial phrase ele-
ment, from errors is the basis;
errors is modified by divergent, a
simple adjective word element
That
is a subordinate conjunction, used
to introduce the clause element.
126 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
EXERCISES UPON CLAUSES IN APPOSITION USED AS ADJEC-
TIVE MODIFIERS.
1. We hold these truths to be self-evident:
(1) That all men are created equal;
(2) That they are endowed by their Creator with
certain inalienable rights;
(3) That among these are life, liberty, and the
pursuit of happiness;
(4) That to secure these rights governments are
instituted among men, deriving their just
powers from the consent of the governed;
(5) That whenever any form of government be-
comes destructive of these ends it is the
right of the people to alter or to abolish it,
and to institute a new government, laying
its foundations on such principles, and
organizing its powers in such form as to
them shall seem most likely to effect their
safety and happiness. — Declaration of In-
dependence.
2. The text, He leadeth me beside the still waters, was
well managed by the preacher.
3. The hope that he would soon reach home, strength-
ened him daily. «
4. Who does not love that beautiful song, "Jesus, lover
of my soul?"
5. The proclamation, that the day should be a day of
thanksgiving, and not a day of fasting, was received with
joy-
6. The news, that the enemy had been forced to retreat,
produced great joy in our camp.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 127
7. A rumor, that the enemy had. entered the city, spread
consternation in every direction.
8. My fear is this, that the promised aid will not reach
me in time.
Write original sentences containing clauses in appo-
sition with the following words:
belief, wish, text, song, rumor, intent, thought, opinion,
doctrine, conviction, assumption, fear, desire, assertion,
demand.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
Clause Used as Objective Element.
rule xv.
When a substantive clause is used to complete the
meaning of a verb, it is in the objective case; and, in
analysis, should be called an objective clause ele-
ment.
In the following sentences, it will be seen, readily, that
the clause elements bear the same relation to the verbs
that the word elements bear to them.
Ex. — I know John (objective word element).
I know that John icill come (objective clause
element).
He saw the basket (objective word element).
He saw how the man made the basket (object-
ive clause element).
That is commonly used to connect the objective clause
to the predicate of the principal proposition; but any sub-
ordinate connective may be so used.
12S SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
In the case of direct quotation, there is no connective
used.
Ex. — '•'•Come to me" he said.
The connective that is frequently omitted in indirect
quotations used as objective elements; but in analyzing it
should be supplied.
Ex. — He told me the family had left town.
The substantive clause is very often used as the object
of a preposition.
Ex. — I should have lost my way in the forest, but
that I overtook a barefoot boy, icho teas
familiar with the intricate windings of the
half-hidden pathway.
I had not thought of how easily it might have
been saved.
You have not heard of where I am going.
In the first of the foregoing sentences, the clause intro-
duced by that is the object of the preposition but.
But that I overtook a barefoot boy, etc., is an adverbial
element equivalent to if I had not, etc.
When the substantive clause is introduced by an inter-
rogative word, the sentence is said to contain an inquiry.
Ex. — I want to know why you hesitate.
He told me where he was going.
Mary knew who had taken it.
A period should be placed at the end of sentences con-
taining an inquiry.
Note. — The substantive clause will be treated of
further under the head of Abridged Propositions.
complex sentences. 129
Substantive Clause Used as Objective Element.
(Continued).
QUOTATIONS.
When one uses the language of another for the pur-
pose of illustration, explanation, criticism, or by way of
authority, the word, phrase, clause, or sentence so used is
called a quotation.
Quotation is said to be direct when the exact
words of the speaker or writer are used.
Quotation is said to be indirect when the thought
or opinion of the writer or speaker is given in the lan-
guage of the one who has borrowed it.
A quotation may consist of one word, or of whole
pages.
Where a quotation is long, if direct, it is called
Direct Discourse; if the quotation is indirect, it is
called Indirect Discourse.
Quotation marks should be employed to indicate a
direct quotation, and, if the quotation be long, a capital
letter should be used also.
When a quotation is put within another quotation, it
should be indicated by single marks, and if it ends the sen-
tence, the single mark should be followed by the double
mark to show that the quotation is complete.
Ex. — My father said to me once: "Seneca says,
'Economy is, in itself, a great revenue,'"
and I believe it.
Quotation marks are not used in the Bible, but all the
quotations begin with capital letters.
1*
130
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Ex. — God said, Let there be light, and there was
light.
And Jesus answering said unto them, They that are
whole need not a physician, but they that are sick.
A writer may quote his own words and use quotation
marks with the same propriety as when quoting from
another. The following, though not a clause, is a good
illustration:
"Carlo," said I, calling up my dog, into the light,
"good fellow, Carlo!" — Ik Marvel.
The principal proposition is usually placed first, when
the subordinate clause is either direct or indirect quotation.
Ex. — John said, "I am not prepared to recite."
John said that he was not prepared to recite.
It may be placed, however, at the end of a sentence, or
in the middle of a sentence.
Ex. — " Tell me where you have been," she said.
"Let me remain," said he, "until to-morrow."
The principal propositions, in some sentences contain-
ing quotations, may be changed to subordinate propositions
denoting the authority for a statement, without changing
the meaning of the statement.
Ex. — He believed, as he told me, that the mines
would be very valuable.
Note. — This kind of construction will be treated of
under the head of adverbial elements.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
131
Models foe Analyzing Sentences Containing Quota-
tions Direct and Indirect.
model I.
Then Judah came near unto him, and said, 0 my lord,
let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word in my lord's
ears.
This is a complex sentence; it is composed of one prin-
cipal proposition and two subordinate propositions.
It is a mixed sentence; the principal proposition and
one of the subordinate propositions are declarative; the
leading subordinate proposition is imperative.
Then Judah came
near unto him
and said
Judah
Came and said
is the principal proposition,
which is, also, partially com-
pound, having a compound
predicate, came and said.
is the subject; it is unmodi-
fied.
is the grammatical predicate.
Came, the first member of the
compound predicate, is modi-
fied by near unto him, an
adverbial phrase element de-
noting place. Unto him is
the basis, modified by near,
an adverbial word element.
Both members of the com-
pound predicate are modified
by the adverbial element
then, a word element denoting
time.
132
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Said,
O my lord
Thou
(understood)
Let
the second member of the complbund
predicate, is modified by three distinct
objective elements, each of which is
independent of the other.
is the direct object of said, but is
otherwise independent. Lord is the
basis; it is nominative independent by-
address; it is limited by my, an adjec-
tive word element. 0 is used to indi-
cate emotion.
The letter 0 is properly used with
the nominative by address.
Said is modified by, Let thy ser-
vant speak a word in my lord's ears,
an objective clause element. This
clause is an imperative sentence, and
is subordinate only because it is the
object of said.
is the subject; it is unmodified.
is the predicate; it is modified by thy
servant speak a word in my lord's ears,
a double objective element.
Servant is the direct object, modi-
fied by my, an adjective word element;
(to) speak a word in my lord's ears is
the complex attributive object.
The basis of the complex attribu-
tive object is the infinitive to speak,
showing something the direct object is
to do; it is modified by a word, an
objective word element; it is modified,
also, by in my lord's ears, an adverbial
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 133
phrase element, denoting place; of
which, in ears is the basis; ears is
modified by my lord's, a complex pos-
sessive, used as an adjective element;
lord's is the basis, modified by my, an
adjective word element.
Said is further modified by I pray thee, a
clause used as a direct objective ele-
ment. Taken alone, it is a comj^lete
sentence, and is dependent only be-
cause it completes the meaning of said.
It has no grammatical relation to the
other parts of the sentence, but may
be considered an element of appeal,
used for emphasis.
I is the subject, unmodified.
JPray is the predicate; it is modified by (to)
thee, an indirect objective phrase ele-
ment.
MODEL II.
Emerson says that obstinacy is the heroism of Utile minds.
It is a complex declarative sentence.
JEmersOfl says is the principal proposition.
That obstinacy is
the heroism of
little minds is the subordinate proposition.
Emerson is the subject of the principal
proposition; it is unmodified.
134
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Says
Obstinacy
Is heroism
Is
Heroism
is the simple predicate; it is
modified by the subordinate
clause, that obstinacy is the
heroism of little minds, an
objective clause element,
which is joined to the prin-
cipal proposition by the con-
junction that.
is the subject of the subordi-
nate clause; it is unmodified.
is the simple predicate.
is the copula; it is used to
join the attribute to the sub-
ject.
is the substantive attribute;
it is modified by the, a simple
adjective word element.
It is modified, also, by of
little minds, a complex adjec-
tive phrase element; of minds
is the basis; minds is modified
by little, a simple adjective
word element.
EXERCISES UPON THE CLAUSE USED AS OBJECTIVE ELEMENT.
1. I know that he will help you.
2. " Well," said the Man of Books, " Your story is not
ill told in pleasant verse." — Whittier.
3. The Traveler said: " If songs have creeds, their
choice of them let singers make." — Whittier.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 135
4. He said that he met the man in the depths of the
forest.
5. She asked whether the fruit had been brought from
the orchard.
6. " Ay, now I comprehend thee, Sancho," said Don
Quixote.
7. Thomas Jefferson said: "I know that our legislation,
under the regal government, had very many vicious points."
8. I knew that he was in danger of falling.
9. "You are convened this day," he said, "by his
Majesty's orders." — Miles Standish.
10. But the sly Dwarf said:
" No work is wrought
By Trolls of the hills, O man, for naught."
11. He said that he rested an hour by the wayside.
12. " It is not," he said, " a moral question, but one
merely of power."
13. I asked him how far he was going.
14. He replied that he did not know.
15. " Do you know how this stone came here, my
friend?" inquired the benevolent Mr. Pickwick.
16. "Is the broth ready?" said Robin.
" No," answered Peggy, " it's not time yet."
17. He said that he had never given the matter a
thought.
exercise.
Write ten sentences containing objective clause ele-
ments.
136 syntax and analysis.
Adverbial Clauses.
RULE XVI.
When a clause is used to modify the meaning of a
verb, a participle, an adjective, or an adverb, by denoting
time, 2ilace, cause, manner, or degree, it should be called, in
analysis, an adverbial clause element.
The adverbial clauses are introduced by subordinate
conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs, of which there is a
great variety.
Adverbial Clauses Denoting Time.
Adverbial clauses denoting time are joined to principal
clauses by the following words:
After
as long
as
until
as
before
when
as soon as
ere
whenever
as often as
since
while
as frequently
as
till
whilst
The words after, before, ere, since, till and until are
classed with the prepositions; but whenever they are used
to connect a subordinate clause to a principal clause, they
should be called subordinate conjunctions.
The first as, in each of the following connectives, as
soon as, as often as, as long as, etc., is an adverb of degree,
used to limit the adverbs of time, soon, often, loiig.
The second as is a subordinate conjunction, used to
connect the subordinate clause to the principal.
Ex. — I came as soon, as he called me.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 137
In the foregoing sentence, as soon belongs to the prin-
cipal proposition.
Note. — Some regard the words forming these connec-
ives as inseparable; but as the separation may be made so
easily, it is perhaps better to regard them as separable.
There are three divisions of clauses used to denote time,
corresponding to the absolute divisions of time, as fol-
lows:
1. Time antecedent, i. e., past with regard to the time of
the action or event.
Ex. — I heard of it before I saw you.
2. Time simultaneous, or present with regard to the
time of the action or event. •
Ex. — I was there when he came.
3. Time subsequent, or future to the time of the action
or event.
Ex. — I saw him after you left.
MODELS FOR ANALYSIS.
Damocles was wishing such delights to endure forever,
when he looked up, by chance, and beheld above his head,
a sword suspended by a hair.
It is a complex declarative sentence.
Damocles teas wishing such delights to endure forever
is the principal proposition.
When he looked up, by chance, and beheld above his
head a sword suspended by a hair, is the subordinate
proposition.
6*
138
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Damocles
Was wishing
is the subject of the principal
proposition; it is unmodified.
is the simple predicate; it is
modified by such delights to en-
dure forever' a complex objec-
tive word element, a double ob-
ject, delights is the direct object;
it is modified by such, a simple
adjective word element; beheld
is the second member of the
compound predicate; it is modi-
fied by a sword suspended by a
hair; sword is the basis; it is
modified by a, a simple adjec-
tive word element, and by sus-
pended by a hair (abridged
from which was suspended by a
hair), a complex adjective word
element, participial construc-
tion; suspended is the basis; it
is modified by, by a hair, a
complex adverbial phrase ele-
ment denoting manner; by hair
is the basis; hair is modified
by a, a simple adjective word
element.
Beheld is modified also, by
above his head, a complex ad-
verbial phrase denoting place;
above head is the basis; head is
modified by his, a simple adjec-
tive word element; to endure
forever is the complex attribu-
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 139
tive object (the attribute of
delights)-, to endure is the basis,
modified by forever, a simple
adverbial word element, de-
noting time absolute.
The element, such delights
to endure forever, is an abridged
proposition from the objective
clause, that such delights might
endure forever. The principal
proposition is modified by the
subordinate adverbial clause
element denoting time, When
he looked up, by chance, and
beheld, above his head, a sword
suspended by a hair.
lie is the simple subject, unmodi-
fied.
Looked up and
beheld is the compound predicate.
Looked up is the first member
of the compound predicate; it
is modified by, by chance, a
simple adverbial word element
denoting- manner.
"And J must lie here, like a bedridden monk,'1'' ex-
claimed Ivanhoe, " tohile the game that gives me freedom
or death is played out by the hand of others.''''
It is a complex exclamatory sentence, consisting of four
propositions:
140
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
1. Ivanhoe exclaimed.
2. And I must lie here, like a bedridden monk.
3. While the game is played out by the hand of others.
4. That gives me freedom or death.
Ivanhoe
Exclaimed
And I must lie
here like a bed-
ridden monk
Must lie
is the simple subject of the
principal proposition; it is un-
modified.
is the simple predicate; it is
modified by the remainder of
the sentence, a complex objec-
tive clause element, direct quo-
tation.
is the basis of the complex
objective element.
is the simple subject; it is un-
modified.
is the simple predicate; it is
modified by here, a simple ad-
verbial word element denoting
place.
is the simple subject ; it is
modified by like a bedridden
monk, a complex adjective word
element; like is modified by a
bedridden monk, a complex in-
direct objective element, com-
pleting the meaning of the
adjective like; (to is al\va}'s
understood after like) to monk
is the basis; ?no>ik is modified
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
.141
Must lie
by bedridden, a simple adjective
word element.
And is used, not to show
any grammatical connection,
but simply to indicate a con-
nection in thought with some
thought uttered before.
is the simple predicate; it is
modified by here, a simple ad-
verbial word element, denoting
place. It is modified, also, by
the complex adverbial clause
element, denoting time, while
the game that gives me freedom
or death, is played out by the
hand of others. While is a
subordinate conjunction used to
join the subordinate clause to
the principal clause. It is used
also, to modify the verb in
each clause. It always denotes
duration.
Game
is the simple subject of the
principal proposition ; it is
modified by the, a simple adjec-
tive word element; it is modi-
fied, also, by that gives me free-
dom or death, an adjective
clause element.
TJiat
is the subject of the adjective
clause, unmodified.
142 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Gives is the simple predicate; it is
modified by me, an indirect ob-
jective phrase element (to is
understood before me), and by
freedom or death, a compound
direct objective word element.
The two members of the
compound objective element,
freedom and death, are con-
nected by the coordinate alter-
native conjunction or.
Is played OUt is the simple predicate of the
adverbial clause; it is modified
by, by the hand of others, a
complex adverbial phrase ele-
ment denoting the instrument
by the use of which something
is accomplished; by hand is the
basis; hand is modified by the,
a simple adjective word ele-
ment, and by of others, a simple
adjective phrase element.
MODEL III.
Just as she toent down, while her bow was yet recumbent
in the dark purple horizon, it is said that an angel
appeared standing between her horns.
This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of
three propositions, one principal, and two subordinate.
Principal proposition:
That an angel appeared standing between her horns is
said.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
143
First subordinate proposition:
Just as she went down.
Second subordinate proposition:
While her bow was yet recumbent in the dark purple
horizon.
The principal proposition is introduced by the exple-
tive it.
That an angel
appeared standing
between her horns is the simple subject; it is a
clause used as a noun. The
clause subject is introduced
by the word that.
A.ngel is the subject of the clause
(used as subject of the prin-
cipal proposition) ; it is modi-
fied by an, a simple adjective
word element; it is also modi-
fied by standing between her
horns, a complex adjective
word element, participial con-
struction; standing is the
basis; it is modified by be-
tween her horns, a complex
adverbial phrase element de-
noting place; between horns
is the basis; horns is modified
by her, a simple adjective
word element.
The participle standing
does not modify the predicate;
it shows, merely, an accom-
panying action.
144
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Appeared
She
Went down
Bow
Was recumbent
is the simple predicate; it is
modified by the compound
adverbial clause element de-
noting time, just as she went
down and while her bow was
yet . recumbent in the dark
purple horizon.
is the simple subject of the
first member of the compound
clause element; it is unmodi-
fied.
is the simple predicate; went
down is a compound verb, in-
separable. As is the con-
nective, used also to indicate
a point of time simultaneous.
The entire clause, As she
went down, is modified by
just, a simple adverbial word
element.
is the simple subject of the
second member of the com-
pound adverbial clause ele-
ment; it is modified by her, a
simple adjective word ele-
ment.
is the simple predicate; was
is the copula; recumbent is
the adjective attribute; was
recumbent is modified by yet,
a simple adverbial word ele-
ment denoting time; it is also
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 145
modified by in the dark
purple horizon, a complex
adverbial phrase element de-
noting place; in horizon is
the basis; horizon is modified
by purple, a simple adjective
word element; purple horizon
is modified by dark, a simple
adjective word element.
{Dark and purple are two
distinct words; there is, how-
ever, a compound word,
dark-purple). While is a
subordinate connective, used
to join the clause, which it
introduces, to the principal
proposition. It is used, also,
to modify was recumbent; and
appeared, by denoting time.
Is Sdicl is the simple predicate of the
principal proposition; it is
unmodified.
MODEL III.
Will he return as soon as the work is completed?
This is a co?nplex interrogative sentence.
Will he return as soon is the principal proposition; as
the work is completed is the subordinate proposition
He is the simple subject of the principal
proposition; it is unmodified.
7 K
146
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Will return is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by as soon as the icork is com-
pleted, a complex adverbial word
element denoting time; soon is the
basis; it is modified by as, a simple
adverbial word element, and by as
the toork is completed, an adverbial
clause element, used with the first
as to denote comparison of equality
of time; as is a subordinate con-
junction used to join the subordinate
clause to the principal clause.
Wovh is the simple subject of the subordi-
nate proposition; it is unmodified.
Is completed is the principal predicate, unmodi-
fied.
MODEL IV.
Y~ou came earlier than John.
This is a complex sentence. You came earlier, is the
principal proposition ; than John (came early) is the sub-
ordinate proposition.
You is the subject of the principal proposition; it
is unmodified.
Came is the simple predicate; it is modified by,
earlier than John (came early) a complex
adverbial word element donating time; earlier
is the basis, modified by the adverbial clause
element, than John (came early) used to de-
note comparison of inequality.
tfollll is the subject; it is unmodified.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 147
CatVie is the predicate; it is modified by early, a
simple adverbial word element.
model v.
Whenever he is left alone in the garden, he does noth-
thing but spoil my flower beds, by running over them to
chase the butterflies, and to try to catch the humming birds.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
He does nothing but spoil my flower beds by running
over them to chase etc.
Whenever he is left alone in the garden is the subordi-
nate proposition.
Up, is the subject of the principal proposition;
it is unmodified.
Does is the simple predicate; it is modified by
nothing but spoil my flower-beds, by run-
ning over them to chase the butterflies, and
to try to catch the humming birds, a com-
plex objective word element; nothing is
the basis; it is modified by but spoil my
floioer-beds, by running over them to chase
the butterflies, and to try to catch the hum-
ming birds, a complex adjective phrase
element; but (to) spoil is the basis; but is
a preposition, used instead of except; (to)
spoil is the object of but/ (to) spoil is
modified by my flower beds, a complex ob-
jective word element; beds is the basis,
modified by flower, a simple adjective word
element; and also by my, a simple adjective
word element. (To) spoil is modified also
by, by running over them to chase the
148 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
butterflies, and to try to catch the humming
birds, a complex adverbial phrase element,
denoting manner; by running is the basis;
running is modified by over them, a simple
adverbial phrase element.
Running is a participial noun, in the
objective case, governed by the preposition
by.
Running is modified, also, by to chase
the butterflies, and to try to catch the hum-
ming birds, a compound adverbial phrase
element; (infinitive of purpose) to chase the
butterflies is the first member of the com-
pound adverbial element of purpose; to
chase is the basis, it is modified by the
butterflies, a complex objective word ele-
ment; butterflies is modified by the, a sim-
ple adjective word element. To try to
catch the humming birds is the second
member of the adverbial element of pur-
pose; to try is the basis, modified by to
catch the humming birds, a complex direct
objective phrase element; to catch is the
basis; it is modified by the humming birds,
a complex objective word element; hum-
ming birds is the basis, modified by the, a
simple adjective word element.
The principal proposition, (entire) is
modified by Whenever he is left alone in
the garden, an adverbial clause element de-
noting time,
He is the subject; it is unmodified.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 149
Is Left is the simple predicate; is, is the copula,
and left is the verbal attribute.
Is left is modified by alone, a simple
adverbial element of manner; it is modi-
fied also, by in the garden, a complex ad-
verbial phrase element, denoting- place; in
garden, is the basis; garden is modified by
the, a simple adjective word element.
Whenever is a conjunctive adverb, used
to join the subordinate clause to the prin-
cipal; it is used also to modify the predi-
cates of both propositions, by denoting
time indefinite.
EXERCISES ON TQHE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE ELEMENT USED TO
DENOTE TIME.
1. "Before I was a king," said he, "I was a farmer." —
Charles XV, of Sweden.
2. When the hour of departure came he accompanied
me to the foot of the stairs.
3. When the services were over, many of the audience
seemed inclined to linger in the nave, or wander away
among the mysterious aisles. — Hawthorne.
4. While he was speaking, his voice faltered with
emotion.
5. As he approached the house, he heard the sounds of
merriment.
6. At length the dial instituted a formal inquiry, when
hands, wheels, weights, with one voice, protested their in-
nocence.
7. Leave me, till the twilight comes to soothe my
achintr heart.
150 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
8. As you lift your eyes to the vast amphitheatre, you
meet, in imagination, the eyes of a hundred thousand
Romans, who have assembled to witness the gladiatorial
combats.
9. I must labor until midnight.
10. Can we still set our hearts on the creatures of God,
when we find, by sad experience, that the Creator only, is
permanent? — Bishop Heber.
11. Harley sat down on a large stone by the way-side to
take a pebble from his shoe, when he saw, at some distance,
a beggar approaching him.
12. And, as he lay and slept under a juniper tree, be-
hold then an angel touched him.
13. While he was speaking, his voice faltered.
14. Come before the moon rises.
15. 1 shall remain until I hear from nome.
16. Write to him as often as you can.
17. You may leave whenever you desire.
18. Were you at the window as the procession passed
by?
19. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy
youth, while the evil days come not, nor the years draw
nigh, when thou shalt say, I have no pleasure in them.
20. As we crossed the Sierra Nevada, the snowy moun-
tains that look down upon the luxuriant Vega of Grenada,
we overtook a solitary rider, who was singing a wild
national song, to cheer the loneliness of his journey. —
Longfellow's Prose.
21. When the scorner is punished, the simple is made
wise.
22. When Don Quixote was leaving Barcelona, he cast
his eye toward the spot where he was thrown.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 151
Write twenty sentences illustrating the different kinds
of clause elements denoting time.
Select sentences from the Reader to illustrate the lesson.
Adverbial Clauses Denoting Place.
Adverbial clauses denoting place are joined to prin-
cipal clauses by the following connectives:
where, whither,
wherever, whithersoever,
where'er, whence,
wheresoever, as far as,
as long as
farther than
longer than.
Where is used to indicate locality.
Ex. — Let it stay where I placed it.
Wherever, toheresoever and where'er, indicate locality,
but in a very indefinite manner.
Ex. — Wherever you go, I will follow.
Where'er is used in poetry, rarely in prose.
Whither indicates direction toward a place.
Ex. — Whither thou goest, i will go.
Whence indicates direction from a place.
Ex. — I know not whence they came.
Clauses introduced by whither and whence are not nu-
merous.
They are commonly used as interrogative adverbs.
152 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Ex. — Whence come those awful sounds?
Whither dost thou fly, 0 bird of the silvery
As far as is used to express comparison of equality of
distance.
Ex. — We went with him as far as the end of the
lane.
In negative comparisons, so should always be used in-
stead of (is, for the first term of comparison.
Ex. — He did not go with me so far as the end of the
lane.
Farther than expresses inequality of distance.
Ex. — He went with me farther than the end of the
lane, (is far.)
Tired N'ature''s sweet restorer, balmy Sleep/
He, like the world, his ready visit pays
Where fortune smiles.
This is^a complex declarative sentence. The first line
consists of a noun, in the nominative case, by pleonasm,
and its modifiers.
He, like the world, his ready visit pays, is the principal
proposition; Where fortune smiles is the subordinate pro-
position.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 153
JRestOTer is the nominative case independent by
pleonasm (the attention is called to the
• object before any statement is made
about it); it is modified by sweet, a simple
adjective word element; sxoeet restorer is
modified by Tired Nature's, a complex
adjective element; Nature^s is modified
by Tired, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
Restorer, is modified, also, by balmy
Sleep, a complex adjective word element,
by apposition; Sleep is the basis, modi-
by balmy, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
He is the simple subject; it is modified by
like the world, a complex adjective word
element, like is the basis, modified by
(to) the world, a complex indirect ob-
jective phrase element; (to) world is the
basis; world is modified by the, a simple
adjective word element.
JPays is the simple predicate; it is modified by
his ready visit, a complex objective word
element; visit is the basis, modified by
ready; ready visit is modified by the
simple adjective word element, his.
fays, is modified, also, by "Where fortune
smiles, a simple adverbial clause element,
denoting place; Where is the connective,
a conjunctive adverb, and, also, modifies
the verb in each proposition, i. e. pays
and smiles.
154 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Wherever you may go, you toill find sorrow and disap-
pointment.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
You will find sorrow and disappointment, is the prin-
cipal proposition; wherever you may go, is the subordinate
proposition.
You is the subject of the principal propo-
sition; it is unmodified.
Will find is the simple predicate; it is modified by
sorrow and disappointment, a compound
objective word element, unmodified; the
two members of the compound objective
element are connected by the coordinate
copulative conjunction, and. The predi-
cate is modified, also, by Wherever you
may go, an adverbial clause element, de-
noting place.
You is the subject of the subordinate clause,
unmodified.
Way go is the simple predicate; it is modified by
wherever, an adverb of place, which has
a universal signification. Wherever is
also the connective.
EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL CLAUSES DENOTING PLACE.
1. Put the trees where they are to be planted.
2. Send it where there is the greatest need.
3. Do you ever go where the basket-makers live?
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 155
4. Wherever we are, we are not forgotten by a kind
Providence.
5. Where the heart is well guarded, temptations cannot
enter.
6. Where the whole is one dark blot of shade, there
can be no picture.
7. Whither I go, ye cannot come.
8. Where'er I roam, whatever realms to see,
My heart untravell'd fondly turns to thee.
— Goldsmith.
9. He buys where he can get the best bargains.
10. Standing where I was, concealed by the little clump
of evergreens, I overheard, in spite of myself, the conver-
sation of the two robbers.
11. There is society where none intrudes
By the deep sea, and music in its roar. — Byron.
12. Where truth and right are concerned, we must not
hesitate.
13. Where all were false, I found thee true.
— Geo. P. Morris.
14. As far as the eye could reach, the landscape was
enchanting in its beauty.
15. The boy stood where he was in danger.
16. The stag at eve had drunk his fill,
Where danced the moon on Monan's rill.
— Lady. op the Lake.
17. Where there is no vigilance, there is no safety.
18. Highest of all, where white peaks glanced,
Where glist'ning streamers waved and danced,
The wanderer's eye could barely view
The summer heaven's delicious blue. — SCOTT.
156 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
19. He not being pleased with the West, will return
whence he came.
20. The carrier dove, with willing pinions, flies whither
she is sent.
21. I have been where the roses bloom all the year
round.
Let the pupil write twenty sentences containing adver-
bial clauses denoting place.
Adverbial Clauses Used to Denote a Cause or a
Reason.
The principal proposition is often modified by an adver-
bial clause denoting a cause or a reason.
They are called causal clauses.
These clauses are introduced by the conjunctions:
as, because, for, inasmuch as, since.
Ex. — He is rich because he has been industrious and
economical.
He must be rich for he lives in luxury.
Since he is so rich, I shall not hesitate to ask
his aid.
In the first sentence given above, the adverbial clause
is used to give the real cause of his being rich.
In the second sentence, the adverbial clause is used to
show a reason for making the statement found in the first
clause, a reason for drawing the inference.
In the third sentence, the adverbial clause shows a
reason for not hesitating to ask for aid.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
157
There is also, another clause, called an illative clause,,
giving a reason, for the existence of what is stated in the
principal clause.
He is rich, therefore he lives in luxury.
MODEL I.
I shall return to the city, at the end of the month, be-
cause my business loill require my close attention, from that
time until the arrival of my partner.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
I shall return to the city at the end of the month, is the
principal proposition.
Because my business will require my close attention,
from that time, until the arrival of my partner, is the sub-
ordinate proposition.
I is the simple subject; it is unmodi-
fied.
Shall return is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by to the city, a complex adver-
bial phrase element, denoting place;
to city is the basis; city is modified
by the; — also by at the end of the
month, a complex adverbial phrase
element, denoting time; at end is
the basis; end is modified by the, a
simple adjective word element; and
by of the month, a complex adjective
phrase element; of month, is the
basis; month is modified by the sim-
ple adjective word element the.
158
Business
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Shall return is modified, also, by
because my business icill require my
close attention, from that time until
the arrival of my partner, an adver-
bial causal clause, denoting the real
cause of his returning.
is the simple subject of the sub-
ordinate proposition; it is modified
by my, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
Will require is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by my close attention, a complex
objective word element (direct ob-
ject); attention is the basis, modified
by close, a simple adjective word
element, close attention is modified
by my, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
Will require is modified, also, by
from that time until the arrival of
my partner, a complex adverbial
phrase element denoting time. The
basis of this element is a phrase,
from that time; it is modified by
until the arrival of my partner. The
first phrase denotes the beginning of
the specified time; the second phrase
denotes the end of the specified
time.
The basis of the first phrase is
from time; time is modified by the
simple adjective word element that.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
159
The basis of the second phrase is
until arrival, arrival is modified by
'the, a simple adjective word element,
and by of my partner, a complex ad-
jective phrase element; of partner
is the basis, partner is modified by
the simple adjective word element
my.
They are fighting, for I hear the sound of the artillery.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
They are fighting is the principal proposition; for I
hear the sound of the artillery, is the subordinate proposi-
tion.
They
Are fighting
Hear
is the subject of the princij
sition; it is unmodified.
propo-
is the simple predicate; the entire
expression, They are fighting, is
modified by, for I hear the sound of
the artillery, an adverbial causal
clause, used to denote the reason for
knowing the fact (it does not give
the cause, or reason of the fact, that
they are fighting).
is the simple subject of the subordi-
nate clause; it is unmodified.
is the simple predicate; it «is modi-
fied by the sound of the artillery^ a
complex objective word element;
sound is the basis, modified bv the,
1G0 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
a simple adjective word element,
and by of the artillery, a complex
adjective phrase element; artillery
is modified by the, a simple adjective
word element.
EXERCISE UPON CAUSAL CLAUSES USED AS ADVERBIAL
ELEMENTS.
1. I will not prolong the journey, for I am weary and
wayworn, and would fain be at Heidelberg, with my read-
ers and my hero. — Longfellow's Prose.
2. I came because your horse would come! — John
Gilpin.
3. He did not reach here in time, because the train was
delayed.
4. Since you have deceived me in such a manner, I can-
not trust you again.
5. People often travel many a weary mile in search of
happiness, because they do not realize the fact, that it is to
be found at their own fireside, where they lost it.
6. The little children, going home from school, did not
hesitate to run into her little cottage to escape the rain, for
they knew they were always welcome.
7. Since you are not fond of reading, it would be the
greatest folly to spend your money, in buying books.
8. As the ship will not sail to-day, our friends will ac-
company us to the concert to-night.
9. There was no frost last night, for the plants are not
injured.
10. He must be sick or absent, for he has not been seen
in town this week.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 161
11. Those boys must be very studious, for they always
recite well.
12. The Christian religion must be the true religion,
for it has stood firm in all ages, in spite of the attacks of
unbelievers.
13. As the twilight lingers so long, we may continue
our walk.
14. I did not go, because you promised to remain until
to-morrow.
15. Since you have confessed your fault, I will forgive
you.
16. Because the city did not please him, he moved back
into the country.
17. You must leave now to take a little rest, for you
look weary, and careworn.
18. I know that he did not bring the package, for I
have been here all day, watching anxiously for it.
19. I pitied him, because he had lost the confidence of
his master.
20. It is not because one man keeps a coach, while his
neighbor walks afoot, that the one is rich, and the other
poor. — Wealth of Nations.
21. It is because one is rich, that he keeps a coach.
22. It is because one is poor, that he goes afoot.
Write sentences to illustrate adverbial causal clauses,
introduced by;
because, since, as, for
Select sentences from the Header to illustrate the use of
the causal clause.
7* r,
16^ syntax and analysis.
Adverbial Clauses Denoting Manner.
Adverbial clauses denoting manner modify the prin-
cipal clause by indicating JlOW anything is done; and
under this head are included:
1. Correspondence.
Ex. — He works as he was directed to work.
2. Consequence.
He works so hard that he cannot endure it
long.
3. Comparison of equality.
He works as diligently as any of them.
4. Comparison of inequality.
He works more diligently than any of them.
5. Comparison of proportionate equality.
The harder he works, the more he earns.
Sometimes two conjunctions are used together in a sen-
tence, but they have no relation to each other. In such
cases, a clause is always omitted by ellipsis.
Ex. — Be as courteous to one in humble circum-
stances, as if you were sure that he would
be at no distant day, a man of power and
influence.
Expanded form. —
Be as courteous to one in humble circum-
stances as you would be courteous, if you
were sure that he would be, at no distant
day, a man of power and influence.
As though is often incorrectly used for as if.
Clauses introduced by as or than always limit the ad-
jective or the adverb to which they are joined.
C0MP1EX SENTENCES. 163
The word as which precedes the adjective or the adverb,
is itself an adverb of degree used to modify the word to
which it is joined. — See Adverbial Clause denoting time.
Comparison of positive equality is always indicated
by as — as.
Ex. — John is as tall as James [is tall].
In comparisons of negative equality, however, SO, not
as, must be used for the Jirst term of the comparison.
Ex. — John is not so tall as James.
Clauses denoting comparison of inequality are intro-
duced by than.
Ex. — He can run faster than you.
The subordinate clause connected by than is used to
modify the adjective or the adverb to which it is joined.
There is usually an ellipsis after than, and the noun or
pronoun which follows it, must be in the nominative
case.
Ex. — No man in the senate is more eloquent than
he [is eloquent].
Sometimes both subject and predicate verb are omitted
after than, leaving only the object.
Ex. — I will call Mary sooner than him.
Such expressions as the foregoing, are not considered
elegant, though by supplying the subject and predicate the
construction will be seen at once:
I will call Mary sooner than I will call him.
Proportionate equality is indicated by the— the.
Ex. — The faster I ran the greater grew my fear.
164 .SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Adverbial clauses should be separated from principal
clauses by a comma, except those introduced by as and
than; clauses connected to the principal proposition by
these conjunctions should never be separated by any mark
from the principal proposition.
Models of Sentences Containing the Different
Kinds of Adverbial Elements Denoting Manner.
model I.
He gave me the medicine, just as you directed.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
He gave me the medicine is the principal proposition;
just as you directed, is the subordinate proposition.
He is the simple subject of the princi-
pal proposition; it is unmodified.
Gave is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by the medicine, a complex ob-
jective word element (direct ob-
ject), and by (to) me, an objective
phrase element (indirect object) ;
and, also, by just as you directed, an
adverbial clause • element denoting
manner.
Yow is the subject of the subordinate
clause; it is unmodified.
Directed is the predicate; it is unmodified.
As is a subordinate conjunction used
to join the subordinate clause to the
principal clause. The entire subor-
dinate clause is modified by just, a
simple adverbial word element.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
165
MODEL II.
He is not so studious as people suppose.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
He is not so studious, is the principal proposition; as
people suppose, is the subordinate proposition.
He is the subject of the principal prop-
osition, unmodified.
Is Studious is the simple predicate; is, is the co-
pula, and studious is the adjective
attribute. Studious is modified by
so, an adverbial word element of de-
gree; and by as people suppose {that
he is studious), an adverbial clause
element denoting comparison.
People is the simple subject, unmodified.
Sup-pose is the simple predicate, it is modified
by the objective clause, understood
(that he is studious).
MODEL III.
Then the clouds again changed their color, gradually
becoming brighter as if new life had been infused into them.
— Land op the Midnight Sun.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
Then the clouds again changed their color, gradually
becoming brighter, is the principal proposition; as if new
life had been infused into them, is the subordinate proposi-
tion.
166 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Clouds is the simple subject of the
principal proposition; it is
modified by the, a simple ad-
jective word element, and by
gradually becoming brighter
as if new life had been in-
fused into them, a complex
adjective word element, par-
ticipial construction.
Becoming brighter is the
basis; becoming is the parti-
ciple of the copulative verb
become, followed by brighter,
a predicate adjective absolute
with the participle.
Becoming brighter is modi-
fied by gradually, a simple
adverbial word element of
manner (the idea of time is
conveyed, also, by gradually) ;
it is modified, also, by as if
new life had been infused into
them, a complex adverbial
clause element denoting man-
ner.
After as an entire propo-
sition is omitted by ellipsis; —
as they would become brighter,
if new life had been infused
into them.
The elliptical clause intro-
duced by as, is modified by
if new life had been iixf
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
167
Life
Had been infused
Changed
into them, a simple adverbial
clause element denoting con-
dition.
is the simple subject; it is
modified by new, a simple ad-
jective word element. If is a
subordinate conjunction.
is the simple predicate, it is
modified by into them, a sim-
ple adverbial phrase element
of place.
is the simple predicate of the
principal proposition; it is
modified by their color, a com-
plex objective word element,
color is the basis, modified by
their, a simple adjective word
element; changed is modified,
also, by again, a simple ad-
verbial element of time.
The participle and its
modifiers, besides belonging
to the subject, show an ac-
companying condition, some-
what affecting the predicate.
16*
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Models of Sentences Containing Clauses Denoting
Comparison of Equality, Comparison of Inequal-
ity, of Proportionate Equality of Correspond-
ence, of Consequence and Result.
model i.
The pleasure of seeking it, is as great as the pleasure of
finding it.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
The pleasure of seeking it is as great, is the principal
proposition; as the pleasure of finding it {is great), is the
subordinate clause.
JPleciSlli'e is the simple subject of the principal
proposition; it is modified by the, a sim-
ple adjective word element; and by of
seeking it, a complex adjective phrase
element; of seeking is the basis, — seek-
ing is modified by it, a simple objective
word element.
Is Grreat is the simple predicate; is is the copula,
and great is the adjective attribute. The
attribute, great is modified by as, an ad-
verbial word element of degree, and by
as the jileasure of finding it (is great), an
adverbial clause element, denoting com-
parison of equality.
Pleasure is the simple subject of the subordinate
proposition, modified by the, a simple ad-
jective word element; and by of finding
it, a complex adjective phrase element;
of finding is the basis; finding is modi-
fied by the simple objective word ele-
ment it.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 169
As letters some hand hath invisibly traced,
When held to the flame will steal out on the sight,
So, many a feeling that long seemed effaced
The warmth of a meeting like this brings to light.
This is a complex declarative sentence, containing five
propositions, one principal proposition, and four sub-
ordinate propositions.
SUBORDINATE PROPOSITIONS.
1. The warmth of a meeting like this brings to light,
So, many a feeling — principal proposition,
2. That long seemed effaced,
3. As letters will steal out on the sight,
4. ( Which) some hand hath invisibly traced,
5. When held to the flame, subordinate propositions.
Warmth is the simple subject of the
principal proposition; it is
modified by the, a simple
adjective word element, and
by of a meeting like this, a
complex adjective phrase
element; of meeting is the
basis; meeting, is modified
by a, a simple adjective
word element, and by like
t/tis, a complex adjectiva
word element; like is the
basis; it is modified by (to)
t/tis, a simple objective
phrase element.
170
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Brings
That
is the simple predicate; it
is modified by many a feel-
ing that long seemed effaced,
a complex objective word
element; feeling is the
basis; it is modified by
many a, a simple adjective
word element; and by that
long seemed effaced; an ad-
jective clause element.
is the simple subject of the
adjective clause; it is un-
modified.
Seemed effaced
is the simple predicate;
seemed is a copulative verb,
used to join the verbal
attribute (to be) effaced, to
the subject; seemed effaced,
is modified by long, an ad-
verbial word element, de-
noting time.
Urings is also modified
by to light, an adverbial
phrase element.
The entire expression is
limited by As letters some
hand hath invisibly traced,
When held to the flame,
will steal oat on the sight,
a complex adverbial ele-
ment, denoting manner
(correspondence).
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
171
Letters
Hand
Hath traced
Will steal out
They (understood)
is the simple subject of the
clause denoting manner; it
is modified by that (under-
stood) some hand hath in-
visibly traced, an adjective
clause element.
is the subject of the adjec-
tive clause; it is modified
by some, a simple adjective
word element.
is the simple predicate; it
is modified by invisibly, a
simple adverbial word ele-
ment, and by that, a simple
objective word element.
That is also the connective
of the adjective clause.
is the simple predicate of
the principal proposition;
it is modified by on the
sight, an adverbial phrase
element. As is a connec-
tive, used only to join the
subordinate clause to the
principal. The predicate
is modified, also, by When
held to the flame, an ad-
verbial clause element, de.
noting time.
is the simple subject; it is
unmodified.
172 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Awe (understood) held is the simple predicate; it
is modified by When, an
adverbial word element, de-
noting time; when is used,
also, to connect the subor-
dinate clause, denoting time,
to the subordinate clause de-
noting manner. Are held is,
also, modified by to the flame,
an adverbial phrase element,
denoting place; to flame is
the basis; flame is modified
by the, a simple adjective
word element.
MODEL III.
lie was so anxious to return to America that he would
not wait an hour longer, though his health was improving
rapidly.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
He vms so anxious to return to America is the principal
proposition, That he would not 'wait an hour longer, though
his health was improving rapidly, is the complex sub-
ordinate clause.
He is the subject of the principal
proposition, unmodified.
Was anxious is the simple predicate; was is
the copula, and anxious is the
adjective attribute, modified
by so, an adverbial word
element of degree; and by to
return to America, a complex
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
17a
Would remain
objective phrase element (in
direct object); to return is the
basis, it is modified by to Amer-
ica, an adverbial phrase ele-
ment, denoting place. The at-
tribute, anxious, is modified,
also, by that he would not re-
main an hour longer, though
his health toas improving rap-
idly, a complex adverbial clause
element, denoting consequence.
is the subject, unmodified.
is the simple predicate; it is-
modified by an hour longer, a
complex adverbial word ele-
ment, denoting time; longer is
the basis, modified by (by) an
hour, an adverbial phrase ele-
ment, denoting measurement of
time; the clause is modified by
not, a modal adverb. The en-
tire clause is modified by though
his health toas improving rap-
idly, an adversative concessive
clause. That is a subordinate
conjunction, used, only as a
connective.
Health
is the simple subject of the con-
cessive clause; it is modified by
his, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
174 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Was improving is the simple predicate; was is
the copula, and improving is the
verbal attribute. The predicate
is modified by rapidly, an ad-
verbial word element, denoting
manner.
Though is a subordinate con-
junction, used to join the con-
cessive clause to the denoting
consequence.
He gave me such a look that I loas convinced of his sin-
cerity.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
He gave me such a look, is the principal proposition ;
that I was convinced of his sincerity, is the subordinate
proposition.
He is the subject of the principal
proposition, unmodified.
Gave is the simple predicate; it is mod-
ified by such a look, a complex
objective word element; look is
the basis, modified by such a an
adjective word element, insepara-
ble; and by me, an indirect objec-
tive element.
The principal proposition is
modified by that I was convinced
of his sincerity, an adverbial clause
element denoting consequence or
effect.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 175
is the subject, unmodified.
Was convinced
is the simple predicate; it is mod-
ified by of his sincerity, a complex
objective phrase element (indirect
object); of sincerity is the basis;
sincerity is modified by his, a
simple adjective word element.
model v.
The moon is more beautiful them the sun.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
The moon is more beautiful, is the principal proposition ;
than the sun (is beautiful) is the subordinate proposition.
JMoon is the simple subject of the principal
proposition; it is modified by the,
a simple adjective word element.
Is beautiful is the simple predicate, is, is the cop-
ula, and beautiful is the adjective
attribute. Beautiful is modified by
more, an adverbial element of de-
gree, used to form the comparative
of beautiful.
More beautiful is modified by
than the sun (is beautiful) an adver-
bial clause denoting comparison of
inequality.
Sim is the simple subject of the subor-
dinate proposition; it is modified by
the, a simple adjective word element.
Is beautiful is the predicate; Is, is the copula,
and beautiful is the adjective attrib-
ute. The predicate is unmodified.
176
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
MODEL IV.
The farther I read, the greater my wonder grew.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
The greater my wonder grew, is the principal proposi-
tion; and the farther 1 read, is the subordinate proposition.
Wonder
Grew greater
I
Read
is the simple subject of the prin-
cipal proposition; it is modified
by my, a simple adjective word
element.
is the simple predicate; grew is a
copulative verb, used to connect
the adjective attribute to the sub-
ject. To be is understood after
grew. The adjective attribute,
greater, is modified by the, a
simple adverbial word element.
The principal proposition is
modified by the farther I read,
an adverbial clause element, de-
noting-comparison of proportionate
equality.
is the subject of the subordinate
proposition; it is unmodified,
is the simple predicate; it is
modified by the farther, a complex
adverbial word element, denoting-
distance; it seems, also, to convey
the idea of amount.
Farther is the basis; it is mod-
ified by the a simple adverbial
word element.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 177
EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL CLAUSES DENOTING MANNER.
1. He ploughed the fields just as his father ploughed
them forty years before.
2. Teach me to labor and to wait as you have done.
3. I can do it just as the carpenter did it.
4. O Time and Change! — with hair as gray
As was my sire's that winter dav,
How strange it seems, with so much gone
Of life and love, to still live on! — Whittier.
5. I have not seen, in all my wanderings, an apple so
good as the golden pippin that grew on the tree by the
garden gate.
6. In the depths of the forest are found many wild-
flowers which are as beautiful as the flowers in the imperial
gardens.
7. Your friend has not been so fortunate as you have
been.
8. The snow is falling as I have not seen it fall since I
left New England.
9. You may manage the affairs of the household during
my absence, just as you would manage your own.
10. Suddenly, as if arrested, by a feeling of fear or of
wonder.
Still she stood with her colorless lips apart, while a
shudder
Ran through her frame, and forgotten, the flowerets
dropped from her fingers,
And from her eyes and cheeks, the light and the
bloom of the morning. — Evaxuki.ink.
11. This stream ilows much more rapidly than the stream
(that) we crossed this morning.
M
178 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
12. Better is a dry morsel and quietness therewith than
a house full of sacrifices with strife. — Proverbs.
13. It is eighteen degrees colder than it was last night.
14. The colder it grows, the better I feel.
15. The faster I ran, the greater grew my fear.
10. The farther I traveled, the rougher the road became.
17. Are they not more to me than all things else ?
18. The longer the nights are, the shorter the time seems.
Write sentences to illustrate the use of as, just as, than,
the — the.
Let the pupil add clauses denoting consequence or
effect, to the following:
1 had so little food.
He is so tall.
They are so poor.
It is so warm.
The night is so beautiful.
They gave him such a name.
The night is so stormy.
She gave me such a.
Adverbial Conditional Clauses.
An adverbial clause is often used to limit the entire
principal clause by denoting something necessary to the
existence of something else.
Ex. — The solar system could not keep within its ad-
mirable limits for a moment if it loere not
controlled by an Almighty hand.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 179
In this sentence, the solar system, keeping within limits,
is dependent upon a certain condition,, i. e. that of its being
controlled by an Almighty power.
Such clauses are called conditional clauses.
They are introduced by if, though, Unless, ex-
cept, provided, provided that, and lest.
The verb in the conditional clause is in the subjunctive
mode, though it may have the indicative or the potential
form.
MODEL I.
If thou loouldst visit fair Melrose aright,
Go visit it by the pale moonlight.
This is a complex imperative sentence.
Go visit it by the pale moonlight, is the principal propo-
sition.
If thou wouldst visit fair Melrose aright, is the sub-
ordinate proposition.
TllOU understood, is the simple subject
of the principal proposition; it is
unmodified.
GrO is the simple predicate; it is mod-
ified by (to) visit it by the pale
moonlight, an adverbial element of
purpose; the basis is the infinitive
visit (to is understood), modi lied
by it, a simple objective word ele-
ment; visit is modified, also, by,
by the pale moonlight, a com-
180
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Thou
Wouldst visit
plex adverbial phrase element,
denoting manner, by moonlight is
the basis; moonlight is modified
by pale, a simple adjective word
element; pale moonlight is modi-
fied by the, a simple adjective
word element.
The entire principal proposi-
tion is modified by If thou loouldst
visit fair Melrose aright, an ad-
verbial conditional clause.
is the simple subject of the subor-
dinate clause, unmodified.
is the simple predicate; it is mod-
ified by fair Melrose, a complex
objective word element; Melrose
is the basis, modified by fair, a
simple adjective word element.
Visit is modified, also, by aright,
a simple adverbial word element.
If is a subordinate conjunction
used to connect the subordinate
clause to the principal.
MODEL II.
Had I known that you were thinking about leaving, I
shoxdd have advised you to remain.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
I shoitld have advised you to remain; is the principal
proposition.
Had I known that you were thinking about leaving, is
the subordinate proposition.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
181
Should have
advised
Had known
You
Were thinking
is the simple subject of the prin-
cipal proposition; it is unmodified.
is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by you to remain, a double
object; you is the direct object,
and to remain is the attributive
object. The entire principal pro-
position is modified by Had I
known that you were thinking
about leaving, a complex sub-
ordinate adverbial clause denoting
condition, it is equivalent to If I
had known, etc.
is the simple subject of the con-
ditional clause; it is unmodified.
is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by that you were thinking
about leaving, an objective clause
element.
is the subject of the objective
clause, unmodified.
is the predicate; were is the
copula, and thinking is the verbal
attribute. Were thinking is molli-
fied by about leaving, a simple ob-
jective phrase element (indirect
object).
18-2
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
MODEL III.
It will be impossible to reach the place, unless you
travel on horseback.
This is a complex, declarative sentence.
It loill be impossible to reach the place, is the principal
proposition.
Unless you travel on horseback, is the subordinate prop-
osition.
The sentence is introduced by the expletive it, which
forms no material part of the sentence.
To reach the place
Will be impossible
You
is the simple subject; it is
an infinitive absolute with
its modifiers. As subject,
it has no modifiers.
is the simple predicate;
the whole expression is
modified by the subordinate
adverbial clause, unless you
travel on horseback, de-
noting condition.
The basis of the subject
is to reach; it is modified
by the place, a direct ob-
jective word element, place
is the basis; it is modified
by the, a simple adjective
word element.
is the simple subject of the
subordinate clause; it is
unmodified.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 183
Travel is the simple predicate; it
is modified by on horse-
back, a simple adverbial
phrase element.
EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.
1. I have no time to spare, for T have much to do.
2. If there were a possibility of having- even our free-
schools kept a little out of town, it would certainly conduce
to the health and vigor of, perhaps, the mind as well as the
body.— Goldsmith.
3. Had I read as much as others, I might have been as
ignorant.
4. If you want to be miserable, think about yourself.
5. Were I to leave him now, I should always regret it,
for he needs my attention constantly.
6. Weep not that the world changes,
7. Did it keep
A stable, changeless state, 't were cause indeed to
weep.
8. Religion would not have enemies, if it were not an
enemy to their vices.
9. Had he listened to the advice of his parents, he
would not have been in such distress to-day.
10. If I forgot thee O Jerusalem, let my right hand for-
get her cunning. — Psalm cxxxvii.
11. If I take the wings of the morning, and dwell in the
uttermost parts of the sea, even there shall thy hand lead
me. — Psalm cxxxix.
12. The church will be built, provided that enough
money be raised.
184 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
13. Should the river rise, the large steam-boats would
soon be running.
14. He will certainly leave, unless you urge him to-
remain until he grows stronger.
Write sentences to illustrate the use of the conditional
clause, using the following connectives:
If, unless, lest, except, provided that.
Write clauses to limit the following propositions:
John will go to New York.
You may ride.
I cannot remain here.
William can go.
Your plants will wither.
Stand still.
He shall not go.
Write principal propositions, and join to them the fol-
lowing:
Were I in your position.
Had he written one day sooner.
If the moon shine to-night.
Unless you pay in advance.
Provided that the ship sail to-morrow.
Adverbial Clauses Denoting Motive or Purpose.
Adverbial clauses denoting motive or purpose are not
numerous.
They are sometimes called final clauses, and are intro-
duced by that, in order that, and Jest.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 185
Not is frequently used in such clause, in connection
with that, but should not be called a connective, though it
is so regarded by some authors.
Ex. — I went that I might avoid the severity of the
winter.
1 went that I might not suffer from the severity
of the winter.
The clause denoting purpose is equivalent to an infin-
itive of purpose.
Ex. — I went to avoid the severity of the winter.
The clause denoting purpose should be separated from
the principal clause by a comma only.
Model of a Sentence Containing an Adverbial
Clause Denoting Motive.
Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may
be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.
This is a complex imperative sentence. Honor thy
father and thy mother, is the principal proposition; that
thy days may be long upon the land lohich the Lord thy
God giveth thee is the complex subordinate clause.
TJlOU is the simple subject of the principal prop-
osition; it is unmodified.
Honor is the simple predicate; it is modified by
thy father and thy mother, a compound ob-
jective word element; the two members of
which are joined by the coordinate copula-
tive conjunction and. The principal propo-
sition is modified by that thy Jay* may be
8*
186 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
long upon the land lohich the Lord thy
God giveth thee, a complex adverbial clause
element, denoting motive; that thy days
may be long upon the land is the basis,
land is modified by which the Lord thy
God giveth thee, an adjective clause ele-
ment.
Days is the simple subject of the first sub-
ordinate clause; it is modified by thy, a
simple adjective word element.
Way be is the simple predicate; may is the auxil-
iary verb; be is used to denote existence;
it is, also, modified by upon the land
which the Lord thy God giveth thee, an ad-
verbial phrase element denoting place;
upyon land is the basis; land is modified by
the a simple adjective word element, and
by which the Lord thy God giveth thee, an
adjective clause element. The entire pred-
icate is modified by long, an adverbial word
element of duration of time, equivalent to
for a long lime.
Lord is the simple subject of the adjective
clause; it is modified by thy God, a com-
plex adjective element by apposition.
CrivetJl is the simple predicate; it is modified by
(to) thee, a simple objective phrase ele-
ment, indirect object, and by which, a
simple objective word element, direct
object.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 187
EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL CLAUSES DENOTING PURPOSE
OR MOTIVE.
1. The boy, after laboring hard all day would spend
half the night in study, that he might prepare himself to
enter college.
2. Be careful, lest what you say be carried abroad " by
a bird of the air."
3. Take it to a chemist, that he may make an analysis
of it.
4. Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee.
5. He sat by the window, that he might breathe the pure
fresh air, and enjoy the beautiful view of the picturesque
scenery round about his home.
6. My father gave me a few acres of land, that I might
try the experiment of scientific farming.
7. I brought it, that you might, yourself examine it to
see if it is what you want.
8. Do not sell your house, lest you regret it.
9. Obey the voice of conscience, lest thy indifference
cause thee sorrow.
10. Be ready, that you may be able to secure a good
seat.
11. Read the instructions contained in the letter, that
you may know how to proceed.
12. The door of the little church in this strange moun-
tain village, was open when I first saw it, and I entered,
that I might be benefited by the atmosphere of devotion
which always pervades a house of worship.
13. In order that I might reach home in time, I traveled
alone, all nio-ht through a dense forest.
188 syntax and analysis.
Concessive Adverbial Clauses.
A concessive subordinate clause is used to modify the
principal clause by denoting something conceded, yielded,
or admitted.
Ex. — Though I meet opposition at every step, I will
continue to make the investigation.
The connectives of concessive clauses are:
Although, however, notwithstanding, though.
The correlatives, used with these connectives for empha-
sis, are nevertheless, still, yet.
These correlatives are always placed in the principal
proposition.
Clauses denoting comparison of equality sometimes ex-
press concession.
Ex. — Weary as I am, I must continue to work.
Concessive clauses are often introduced by the com-
pound relatives, whatever, whichever, whoever.
Ex. — Whoever may have told you, it is not true.
Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him.
This is a complex, declarative sentence.
Yet w ill I trust in him, is the principal proposition;
though he slay me, is the subordinate proposition.
I is the subject of the principal proposi-
tion, it is unmodified.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 189
Will trust is the simple predicate; it is modified
by in him, an adverbial phrase element
of place (this element refers to place
in a figurative sense).
The entire proposition is modified
by Though he slay me, an adverbial
clause element denoting concession.
He is the subject of the subordinate
clause; it is not modified.
Slay is the simple predicate, it is modified
by me, a simple objective word ele-
ment.
Slay is used instead of slays, to
put it into the subjunctive form of the
verb.
Though is a subordinate conjunc-
tion, used, only to connect the sub-
ordinate clause to the principal.
However content he might seem, his heart was filled with a
longing for his mountain home.
This is a complex declarative sentence.
His heart teas filled with a longing for his mountain
home is the principal proposition.
However content he might see~n is the subordinate.
Heart is the simple subject of the principal
proposition; it is modified by the
simple adjective word element his.
190 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Was filled is the predicate; it is modified by
with a longing for his mountain home,
a complex adverbial element denoting
manner; with longing is the basis,
longing (participial noun) is modified
by for his mountain home, a complex
adjective phrase element; for home is
the basis; home is modified by moun-
tain, a simple adjective word element;
mountain home is modified by his, a
simple adjective word element.
The entire clause is modified by
However content he might seem, an ad-
verbial clause denoting concession.
He is the simple subject, unmodified.
Might seem
eOfltetlt is the simple predicate, seem is a cop-
ulative verb, used to connect the ad-
jective attribute content to the subject;
content, 'the attribute, is modified by
however, a simple adverbial word ele-
ment.
However is a conjunctive adverb,
it is used, also, to join the subordinate
clause to the principal.
EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
1. However extravagant he may seem, he really lives
within his means.
2. I would not do it, though it would relieve me at once
of all embarrassment.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 191
3. Happy as I have been here, I am willing to seek a
new home in the west.
4. Whatever farce the boastful hero plays
Virtue alone, has majesty in death. — Young.
5. Poor as he seemed to be, while he lived, he left a
large fortune to his heirs.
6. Although I gave him permission to go, I shall not
cease to regret it, for I now know that it is impossible for
good to result from it.
7. I would not bear such insults a day longer, though it
were the means of savino- me from a life-time of toil.
Sentences Containing Abridged Propositions,
rule XVII.
When a sentence contains an abridged proposition, it
should be called, in analysis, a simple sentence, unless it
contains a subordinate proposition, also.
PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTIONS.
A.bridf/e means to shorten, to contract.
With regard to syntax, it does not always refer to the
use of fewer words in a sentence; though that is frequently
the case.
Abridgment affects the subordinate clause only, chang-
ing the construction, but making no material change in the
meaning.
The abridged proposition adds greatly to the beauty
and elegance of language.
The connective that is particularly troublesome, as it
occurs so frequently in conversation.
192 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
It is easy to avoid using it, when one understands
abridgment.
Ex. — He wants that I should excuse him.
I want that you should do me a favor.
These sentences are inelegant; the abridged form is
much to be preferred, as:
He wants me to excuse him.
I want you to do me a favor.
Propositions are abridged in various ways, when the
participial construction is used. In the following the full
proposition will be given first :
1. As my home is in the country, I have little oppor-
tunity to attend the lectures.
My home being in the country, I have little oppor-
tunity to attend the lectures.
In this sentence, the proposition is abridged by dropping
the connective as, and changing the verb is to the parti-
ciple being; the subject home is retained.
2. Your brother did not know that you were here.
Your brother did not know of your being here.
In this example, the connective of the objective clause
that is dropped; the subject you is chauged to the posses-
sive your; and the verb were is changed to the participle
being.
3. I did not think that it was he.
I did not think of its being he.
This sentence is like the other, except in one respect;
in the first sentence the word he is a substantive attribute,
in the (predicate) nominative case; and, in the abridged
form, it is retained, as predicate nominative absolute with
the participle being.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 193
4. A little boy, who was named Henry, who was running-
very rapidly across the field, fell, and hurt him-
self badly.
A little boy, named Henry, running rapidly across
the field, fell, and hurt himself badly.
This sentence contains two subordinate propositions;
the first is abridged by dropping the connective and sub-
ject who, and the copula was, and retaining the passive
participle, named, and the predicate nominative Henri/.
The second proposition is abridged by dropping the
subject who, which is, also, the connective and the copula
was, retaining only the participle 7'iotning, and its modi-
fiers.
5. I considered that he was a good boy.
I considered him as being a good boy.
In this construction, the abridgment is from the objec-
tive clause, that he loas a good boy. It is abridged by
dropping the connective that, changing the subject lie to
the objective him, and the copula was, to the participle,
being, preceded by as, a conjunction, used to connect the
expression being a good bog, to the objective him; bog is
in the predicate objective connected to the direct object
(of which it is an attribute) by the participle of the copula
being.
Many participles are used in absolute constructions, as:
Taking it all in all
Speaking the truth
Confessing the truth
Properly speaking
194 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Ex. — Taking it all in all, we ought to be satisfied.
Speaking the truth, I know he is in fault.
Confessing the truth, I am the offender.
Properly speaking, there is no such thing as a
live verb.
There is another form of abridgment, spoken of under
the Phrase Element, which retains only the adverbial
jDhrase of the clause.
Ex. — The sunflowers in the garden. — The sunflowers
which are in the garden.
The abridged proposition, in any of its forms, always
has the name and office of the full proposition.
In the following:
The sunflowers which are in the garden, etc., the sub-
ordinate clause, -which are in the garden, is an adjective
clause element, used to limit su/ifloivers; and in the
abridged form, in the garden is used as an adjective
phrase element, limiting sunflowers,
MODELS FOR ANALYSIS.
MODEL I.
On my right, a swelling mountain ridge, covered with
verdure, and sprinkled with little white hermitages, looked
forth towards the rising sun.
It is a simple sentence, containing two abridged prop-
ositions, covered with verdure, and, sprinkled with little
wldte Jiermitages.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 195
The first abridged proposition is changed from the sub-
ordinate clause which was covered with verdure, to the par-
ticipial construction, by dropping the subject, which, and
the copula was; retaining the participle and its modifiers,
only.
The second abridged proposition is changed in the same
manner.
Mountain ridge is the simple subject; it is mod-
ified by swelling, an adjective
word element, and, also, by the
compound adjective word ele-
ment, participial construction,
Covered with verdure and
sprinkled with little white her-
mitages.
Covered is the basis of the
first member of the compound
adjective element; it is modified
by with verdure, an adverbial
phrase element, denoting man-
ner; it is unmodified.
iSprinkled with little white
hermitages is the second member
of the compound adjective ele-
ment; /Sprinkled is the basis,
modified by with little tohite her-
mitages, an adverbial phrase ele-
ment, denoting manner; with
hermitages, is the basis; her-
mitages is modified by white,
a simple adjective word ele-
ment; white hermitages is mod-
ified by little, a simple adjective
word element.
196 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Looked forth is the simple predicate. {Looked
and forth combined, form a com-
pound verb — inseparable.)
Looked forth is modified by
on my right, a complex adver-
bial phrase element denoting
place; on right is the basis;
right is modified by my, a simple
adjective word element; it is
also modified by toward the
rising sun, a complex adverbial
phrase element, denoting direc-
tion: toward sun is the basis;
sun is modified by the simple
adjective element rising (a par-
ticipial adjective); the complex
idea rising siai is modified by
the, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
MODEL II.
The moon, coming out from under a cloud, threw her
silvery beams all over the landscape, which soon appeared
like a scene of enchantment in fairy land.
It is a complex declarative sentence
The moon coming out from under a cloud threw her
silvery beams all over the landscape, is the principal propo-
sition.
Which soon apjyeared like a score of enchantment in
fairy land, is the subordinate proposition.
COMPLEX SEXTEXCES.
197
Moon
Threw
is the simple subject of the prin-
cipal proposition; it is modified
by the, a simple adjective word
element; it is modified, also, by
coming out from under a cloud,
a complex adjective word element,
participial construction; it is an
abridged proposition, from who
(moon is personified) came out
from under a cloud. Coming out,
is the basis; it is modified by
from under a cloud, a complex ad-
verbial phrase element, denoting-
place; from under cloud, is the
basis; cloud is modified by the
simple adjective word element a.
From under is a complex propo-
sition.
is the simple predicate, it is modi-
fied by her silvery beams, a com-
plex objective word element;
beams is the basis; it is modified
by silvery, a simple adjective word
element; silvery beams, is modi-
fied by her, a simple adjective
word element. The predicate,
threw, is modified, also, by all
over the landscape, which soon ap-
peared like a scene of enchant-
ment in fairy land; over land-
scape is the basis; Ja,i<Is<;i/„ is
modified by the, a simple adjective
word element; also by the adjec-
tive clause element, which <ij>-
peared like, etc.
198
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Which
Appeared Wee
is the simple subject; it is un-
modified.
is the simple predicate. Appeared
is a copulative verb, used to join
the adjective attribute like to the
subject which; it is modified by
soon, an adverbial word element;
like, the adjective attribute, is
modified by the complex indirect
objective phrase element (to) a
scene of enchantment in fairy
land; (to) scene is the basis; it is
modified by of enchantment, a
simple adjective phrase element;
scene is, also, modified by in fairy
land, a complex adjective phrase
element (equivalent to which be-
longs to fair 1/ land); in laud is
the basis; land is modified by
fairy, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
All is an adverbial element,
equivalent to entirely; it modifies
over the landscape, which soon ap-
peared, etc.
MODEL III.
Having witnessed the magnificent sunset, from the top
of the mountain, we descended, very sloioly, watching the
clouds, whose brilliant tints were indescribable.
It is a complex declarative sentence, containing an
abridged proposition.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
199
Having witnessed the magnificent sunset from the top
of the mountain, we descended very slowly, watching the
clouds, is the principal proposition; whose brilliant tints
were indescribable, is the subordinate proposition.
We
Tints
Were itideserihahle
Descended
is the simple subject of the
principal proposition; it is
modified by watching the
clouds, etc., a complex ad-
jective word element; the
participle, watching, is the
basis; it is modified by the
clouds whose brilliant tints
were indescribable, a com-
plex objective word ele-
ment; clouds is the basis,
modified by the, a simple
adjective word element; it
is modified, also, by the
adjective clause element,
Whose brilliant tints fere
indescribable.
is the simple subject ot the
subordinate clause; it is
modified by brilliant, a,
simple adjective word ele-
ment; whose, a simple ad-
jective word element, modi-
lies brilliant tints.
is the simple predicate,
unmodified.
is the simple predicate of
the principal proposition;
it is modified by w< ryslowh/,
200 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
a complex adverbial word
element of manner; slowly
is the basis, it is modified
by very a simple adverbial
word element, denoting de-
gree. Descended is modi-
fied, also, b}r the abridged
proposition, having wit-
nessed the magnificent sun-
set from the top of the
mountain, which is abridged
from the adverbial clause
denoting time — After we
had witnessed the magnifi-
cent sunset from the top of
the mountain. The basis
of the abridged proposition
is Having witnessed, it is
modified by the magnifi-
cent sunset, a complex ob-
jective word element; xu//-
set is the basis, modified by
magnificent, a simple ad-
jective word element; mag-
nificent sunset is modified
by the, a simple adjective
word element.
Saving witnessed is
modified, also, by, from the
top of the mountain, a com-
plex adverbial phrase ele-
ment denoting place; from
top, is the basis; top is"
modified by the, a simple
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 201
adjective word element, and
by of the mountain, a com-
plex adjective phrase ele-
ment.
The participle, Saving
witnessed, really refers to,
and modifies toe, under-
stood; toe having witnessed,
etc., but the entire ex-
pression modifies the-pred-
icate, by denoting time.
The participle watching,
although it belongs to, and
modifies the noun, is used
to denote an action, accom-
panying the action indi-
cated by the predicate verb
descended.
Let the pupil make sentences containing abridged
propositions; using the following participles:
going,
gone,
having gone
doing,
done,
having done
loving,
loved,
having loved
(being) loved,
loved,
having been loved
seeing,
seen,
having seen
feeling,
felt,
having felt
Ex. — A little boy going to school was bitten by a
fierce dog, belonging to a stranger.
John, loved by his mother, always obeyed her
cheerfully.
The past active participle cannot be used
to abridge a proposition.
202 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Exercises Upon Sentences Containing Abridged
Propositions.
participial constructions.
1. Erelong he came to a river, moving in solemn ma-
jesty through the forest.
2. I am a pilgrim, benighted on my way.
3. My friend having left, I determined to remain no
longer in such solitude.
4. Through my window comes the delightful fragrance
of the honeysuckle and the jessamine, reminding me of a
sunny clime, where the air is all the time laden with sweet-
ness.
5. Hearing a cry of pain, I hastened to the door, where
I found a little child, who had lost its way.
6. The words uttered by him, in jest, proved to be
prophetic.
7. Men resting, and waiting for luck to help them,
usually wait in vain.
8. I read the other day, some verses written by an emi-
nent painter, which were original and not conventional.
9. Through the long night she sat watching and waiting
for his return.
10. Fearing that I might offend him, I was exceedingly
careful, in my conduct, and in my conversation.
11. Sharing in the modern contempt for a superficial
learning, he has not wasted his time over dead languages,
which he could not hope thoroughly to master.
12. Twilight coming on, the two men emerged from
their hiding-place.
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 203
13. The lone tree standing in the middle of the prairie,
has sheltered many a weary traveler.
14. Having reached the end of our journey, we enjoyed
a delightful season of rest.
15. Coming down from the mountain, we had a fine
view of the magnificent landscape below.
16. The little girl came into the room weeping.
17. She went away laughing.
18. The poor boy, impoverished by the mismanage-
ment of a faithless guardian, is growing up in ignorance.
19. The boy gathering nuts in the woods, is the son of
a farmer who lives in the large house on the bill.
20. I want the inkstand on your table.
21. That beautiful tall tree in the yard was planted by
my father, thirty years ago.
22. I was delighted to hear of your being in town
again.
23. I often thought of him as being my friend.
24. As there were no windows in this dreary abode,
the only light which cheered the darkness within came
flickering from the fire upon the hearth, and the smoky
sunbeams that peeped down the long-necked chimney.
25. I looked out and beheld a procession of villagers
advancing along the road, attired in gay dresses, and
marching merrily on, in the direction of the church.
2f>. We saw oranges ripening on the trees.
27. The winds sighing among the trees, warned us of
the approach of winter.
28. Vesper looked forth
From out her western hermitage, and smiled;
And up the east unclouded rode the .Moon
With all her stars, gazing on earth intense,
As if she saw some wonder walking there.
204 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS.
Infinitive Constructions.
Infinitive forms are frequently used in the abridgment
of subordinate propositions, and, particularly, in objective
clause elements.
Ex. — He wishes that he could be free.
He wishes to be free.
As the subject in the principal proposition, and that in
the subordinate are the same in this sentence, the subject
is dropped.
But, in the following, it is changed to the objective,
and, with the infinitive, forms a double object.
Ex. — Mary wanted that he should assist her.
Mary wanted him to assist her.
The pronoun him is the direct object and to assist her,
the attributive object, or predicate objective.
In such a sentence as the following:
I ordered him to leave.
Most authors call him the subject of the infinitive; but,
if the subject of a proposition is that about which something
is said, the word him cannot be a subject, for nothing is
affirmed of it; and if the predicate is that which is ajfifiiu d
of the subject, to leave cannot be the predicate for the in-
finitive cannot affirm.
The abridged propositions is frequently introduced by
the preposition for.
ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 205
Ex. — That he should act in such a way surprises me.
For him to act in such a way surprises me.
In the abridged form above, the preposition for is fol-
lowed by the double object, him to act, etc.
Clauses denoting purpose are often abridged by the
infinitive construction.
Ex. — He went to New York that he might get em-
ployment.
He went to New York to get employment.
In the following: I told him that the comet was visible^
him is the indirect object, that the comet was visible, is the
direct object.
The infinitive has but two tenses, the present, and
the present perfect, and great care is necessary in
order to avoid using the wrong one.
The present infinitive should be used when the action
indicated by it, is simultaneous with the action as-
serted by the principal verb; as:
I wanted to go with you to Europe, last year.
I want to go with you to Europe this year.
I know I shall want to go with you to Europe next
year.
After the following verbs the present infinitive should
always be used; they will not take after them the perfect
infinitive.
expect
intend
1 ry
hope
command
endeavor
desire
entreat
attempt
wish
want
fail
etc.
206 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
The perfect infinitive should not be used often,
and only when the time indicated by the infinitive is past
with regard to the time of the action asserted by the prin-
cipal verb, as:
He is said to have succeeded well in his profession
last year.
He ought to have succeeded well last year.
The present infinitive may be used, also, with the verbs
in the sentences above.
MODEL I.
I thought him to be honest.
This is a simple declarative sentence containing an
abridged proposition. The expanded form is, J thought
that he was honest.
In abridging the clause the connective that is dropped,
the subject he is changed to the objective, and the copula
was is changed to the infinitive to be, which is used as cop-
ula to connect the adjective attribute to the objective him.
I is the subject, unmodified.
TJlOUffJlt is the simple predicate; it is modified by
the double objective element, him to be
honest/ him is the direct object, and
honest is the attributive, connected to
him, by to be.
MODEL II.
They went to see the new building.
This is a simple sentence, containing an abridged prop-
osition.
ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 207
The expanded form is They went that they might see the
new building. The subordinate proposition is abridged by
dropping the connective that, and the subject they, and by
changing the finite verb see to the infinitive of purpose,
to see.
They is the subject, unmodified.
Went is the simple predicate; it is modified by to
see the neio building, a complex adverbial
phrase element, denoting purpose; to see is
the basis; it is modified by the new building,
a complex adverbial word element; building
is the basis; it is modified by neio, a simple
adjective word element; neio building is mod-
ified by the, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
MODEL III.
I have sold the house, for you to have enough money to
defray your expenses in Europe.
This is a simple sentence, containing an abridged prop-
osition. The expanded form is I have sold the house in
order that you might have enough money to defray your
expenses in Europe. In abridging the proposition, the
connective, in order that is dropped, the subject is retained,
the predicate verb might have is changed to the infinitive
to have, and the whole follows the preposition for.
I is the subject, unmodified.
Save sold is the simple predicate; it is modified
by the house, a complex objective
word element; house is the basis, mod-
ified by the, a simple adjective word
element. Have sold the house is mod-
ified by for you to have enough money
to defray your expenses in Europe, &
3U5 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
complex adverbial phrase element de-
noting purpose. For is used to gov-
ern, not you alone, but all that fol-
lows; You to have, etc., is a double
objective element; you is the direct
object, and to have, etc., is the attrib-
utive object.
To have is modified by enough
money to defray your expenses in
Europe, a complex objective word ele-
ment; money is the basis; it is modi-
fied by enough, a simple adjective
word element, and by to defray your
expenses in Europe, a complex adjec-
tive phrase element; to defray is the
basis; it is modified by your expenses,
a complex objective word element;
expenses is the basis, modified by your,
a simple adjective word element.
To defray your expenses is modi-
fied by in Europe, a simple adverbial
word element.
EXERCISES UPON ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS.
1. He begged to have the privilege of remaining a
month longer.
2. She taught her children to obey the laws of the land.
3. The man hoped to be able to redeem his property,
before the time should expire.
4. I would travel a thousand miles to see it once more.
5. You will be too late for the train, if you stay to hear
the lecture to-night.
G. He did not want to remain, for he knew there would
be trouble among the members of the society.
7. Let me rest now !
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 209
COMPOUND SENTENCES.
RULE XVII.
When a sentence is composed of independent proposi-
tions, connected by and, or, nor, it should he called, in
analysis, a compound sentence.
A Compound Sentence consists of at least two
independent propositions.
Ex. — By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down;
yea, toe wept when we remembered Zion.
—Psalm cxxxvii.
These propositions have no modifying power.
They (the propositions) should not be called clauses;
for a clause is an integral part of a sentence, while these
may, each, if taken alone, make a full sentence.
The independent propositions of a compound sentence
should be called, in analysis, members, not clauses.
The members of Compound Sentences are united by
Coordinate Copulative Conjunctions, either expressed or
understood.
These conj unctions do not modify, yet they always sug-
gest the nature of the member of the sentence in which
they are found.
1. Cojmlative Conjunctions suggest harmony, as: and.
2. Adversative Conjunctions suggest opposition or con-
trast, as: but.
3. Alternative Conjunctions suggest the leaving out of
something, as: or, nor.
4. Causal. — A cause or reason, as: f>r, therefore.
9* 0
210 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Ex. — 1. They sent a box of clothing to the mission-
aries, and it reached them just before
they sailed.
2. They sent a box of clothing to the mission-
aries, but they had sailed before it reached
the city.
3. They did not send it in time, or the mission-
aries would have received it; for the ex-
press had arrived before they left.
4. The missionaries have not the box of cloth-
ing on board; therefore they must have
sailed before the arrival of the express.
Great care should be taken to avoid the use of a
copulative conjunction, in joining an adversative member
of a compound sentence, to the first number. It will be
seen readily that the word and should not be used in the
second of the foregoing sentences, for the two members do
not harmonize in thought.
They show contrast, therefore but is the appropriate
conjunction to be used.
Coordination, is made emphatic by using associate con-
nections and correlatives.
The associate connective must be in the member of
the sentence in which the principal conjunction is found,
but the correlative must be in the other members.
Ex. — The late frosts injured the crops; and the
heavy rains, also, are doing much damage.
Not only have the crops been injured by the late
frosts, but great damage has been done by the constant and
heavy rains.
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 211
The adverbs, only, merely, simply and even, are some-
times used with but; and in such sentences, the second
member of the compound sentence is copulative, not ad-
versative.
The word but, when so used, is equivalent to and the.
And is the principal copulative conjunction; it is used
(either expressed or understood) in almost all cases of
copulative coordination.
Note. — The coordinate conjunctions are often used to
introduce a sentence; they do not, however, indicate any
grammatical relation, but a relation of thought.
When the word therefore is used as an associate of
and, it shows that the second member is an inference, a
consequence, or a conclusion drawn from the first.
In such sentences and is often omitted.
Inference,
Ex. — 1. A dark cloud is rising, therefore we may
ex,pect rain.
Conclusion,
2. The engines cannot reach here in time,
therefore the building must burn to the
ground.
Consequence,
3. The large building was not carefully con-
structed, therefore it could not stand the
force of the storm.
Moreover is used to add to, and to increase the fore<
of an argument; also, to give additional proof or reason.
Ex. — I did not receive your letter in time; more-
over I was not iiblr t<> travel.
212 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
And, when used alone, denotes simple coordination;
when repeated, however, in a series of coordinate proposi-
tions, it gives emphasis.
As well as, when used as a copulative conjunction, is
inseparable. It makes the coordination stronger than and
makes it, but when it joins two nouns in the singular, it
requires a singular verb.
As well as is commonly used to connect words and
phrases, seldom, clauses.
Ex. — Mary as well as her sister is attending school
in New York.
Note. — Emphatic coordination will be fully explained
hereafter. The members of a compound sentence are sep-
arated by a comma, if the union is very close; otherwise
the semicolon or colon is used.
Models for Analyzing Sentences Having Coor-
dinate Copulative Constructions.
model i.
I labor and I too it.
This is a compound declarative sentence, composed of
two independent propositions.
J labor is the first member of the compound sentence;
and, J wait is the second member.
I is the subject of the first member of the sen-
tence; it is unmodified.
Ldhor is the predicate, unmodified.
I is the subject of the second member, unmodi-
fied.
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 213
Wait is the predicate, unmodified. And is a co-
ordinate copulative conjunction, used to join
the two independent propositions, which
harmonize with each other.
MODEL II.
The day is done, and the darkness
Falls from the wings of Night.
This is a compound declarative sentence.
The day is done is the first member; and the darkness
Falls from the wings of Night is the second member.
Day is the simple subject of the first mem-
ber of the sentence; it is modified by
the, a simple adjective word element.
Is d,OTie is the predicate; it is unmodified.
Darkness is the simple subject of the second
member; it is modified by the a sim-
ple adjective word element.
Falls is the simple predicate; it is modified
by From the wings of Night, a com-
plex adverbial phrase element of place.
From wings is the basis; wings is
modified by the, a simple adjective
word element, and by of NigJit, a sim-
ple adjective phrase element. And is
a coordinate copulative conjunction,
used to join the two members.
214
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
MODEL III.
We had not been long in the camp, when a party set
out in quest of a bee-tree, and, being curious to witness the
sport, I gladly accepted an invitation to accompany them.
— Irving.
This is a compound declarative sentence; the first mem-
ber of which is complex; and the second member contains
an abridged proposition.
We had not been long in the camp^ when a party set
out in quest of a bee-tree, in the first member of the com-
pound sentence, and being curious to witness the sport, I
gladly accepted an invitation to accompany them, is the
second member.
TVe is the subject of the first member, un-
modified.
Had been is the simple predicate. Had is the
auxiliary verb; been is the past par-
ticiple of the verb be; it is used to de-
note existence. Had been is modified
by in the camp, a complex adverbial
phrase element of place; in camp is
the basis; camp is modified by the, a
simple adjective word element. Had
been in the camp is modified by long,
a simple adverbial word element of
time — duration; had been long in the
cam}) is modified by not, a modal ad-
verb; and, also, by when a party set
out in quest of a bee-tree, an adverbial
clause element, denoting a point of
time simultaneous.
COMPOUND SENTENCES.
215
Party
Set out
Accepted
is the simple subject of the subord-
inate clause; it is modified by a, a
simple adjective word element.
is the simple predicate; it is modified
by in quest of a bee-tree, a complex
adverbial element, denoting purpose;
in quest of bee-tree is the basis; (in
quest of is inseparable); bee-tree is
modified by a, a simple adjective word
element.
is the simple subject of the second
member of the compound sentence; it
is modified by being curious to witness
the sport, a complex adjective word
element, participial construction (an
abridged proposition). Being is the
participle of the copula; curious is the
predicate adjective retained after the
participle. Curious is modified by
to witness the sport, a complex indirect
objective element. This is used to
complete the meaning of the adjective
alone, it has no grammatical relation
to being. To witness is the basis, mod-
ified by the complex objective word
element, the sport. Sport is modified
by the, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
is the simple predicate; it is modified
bv an invitation to accompany them, a
complex objective word element ; invi-
tation is the basis, modified by a», a
216 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
simple adjective word element, and by
to accompany them, a complex adjec-
tive infinitive phrase element; to ac-
company is modified by them, an ob-
jective word element, direct. Accepted
is modified, also, by gladly, a simple
adverbial word element of manner.
And is a coordinate copulative con-
junction used to join the two members
of the sentence.
MODEL IV.
God said, Let there be light; and there was light.
This is a compound mixed sentence, consisting of three
propositions, two independent, and one dependent.
The first member of the compound sentence, God said,
Let there he light, is complex; God said is the principal
proposition of the first member of the compound sentence,
it is declarative; Let there be light, is the subordinate
proposition; it is imperative, and is, really, the leading- and
important fact of the sentence; taken alone, it is an inde-
pendent proposition; as the object of said, it is to be re-
garded as a dependent proposition.
The second member of the compound sentence, ami
there was light, is simple and declarative.
God is the subject of the principal proposition, in
the first member of the compound sentence;
it is unmodified.
Said is the simple predicate; it is modified by Let
there be light, a complex objective clause ele-
ment
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 217
Let is the predicate; it is the imperative absolute,
that is, the verb is used without reference to
any subject whatever. If thou or ye be sup-
plied, as subject, neither of them would refer
to an antecedent.
Let is modified by light (to) be, a double
objective element; light is the direct ob-
ject, and (to) be, used to denote existence, is
the attributive object. There is an expletive,
used for the sake of euphony.
Tjigllt is the subject of the second member of the
compound sentence; it is unmodified.
Was is the predicate, unmodified; it is used to
state the existence of light/ there is an ex-
pletive.
And "is a coordinate copulative conjunc-
tion, used to unite the two members of the
compound sentence.
I heard the trailing garments of the night
/Sweep through her marble halls.'
I saw her sable skirts all fringed with light
From the celestial toalls! — Longfellow.
This is a compound exclamatory sentence, composed of
two independent propositions.
The first member is, I heard tin' trailing garment* of
the night sweep through her marble halls.
The second member is, I saw her sable ski/-/* all fringed
with light.
218 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
I is the subject of the first member; it is un-
modified.
Heard is the simple predicate; it is modified by
the trailing garments of the night sweep
through her marble halls, a complex ob-
jective word element, a double object;
garments is the direct object; sweep through
her marble halls is the attributive object.
Garments is the basis, modified by trailing,
a simple adjective word element, a partici-
pial adjective; trailing garments is modi-
fied by the adjective word element the, and
by of the night, a complex adjective phrase
element; of night is the basis; night is
modified by the, a simple adjective word
element.
The basis of the attributive object, is
to sweep; it is modified by through her
marble halls, a complex adverbial phrase
element, denoting place; through halls is
the basis; halls is modified by marble, a
simple adjective word element; marble
halls is modified by her, a simple adjective
word element.
I is t-he subject of. the second member of the
compound sentence; it is unmodified.
Saw is the simple predicate; it is modified by
her sable skirts all fringed with light,
From the celestial walls, a complex objec-
tive word element, a direct object; skirts
is the basis, modified by sable, a simple ad-
jective word element; sable skirts is modi-
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 219
fied by her, a simple adjective word ele-
ment. Skirts is modified by all fringed
with light From the celestial walls, a com-
plex adjective word element, participial
construction ;. fringed is the basis, modified
by all, a simple adverbial word element of
degree, equivalent to entirely,' and by with
light From the celestial walls, a complex
adverbial phrase element of manner; with
light is the basis, light is modified by From
the celestial toalls, a complex adjective
phrase element; from vmlls is the basis;
toalls is modified by celestial, a simple ad-
jective word element; celestial walls is
modified by the, a simple adjective word
element.
Exercise upon Compound Sentences.
coordinate copulative constructions.
1. I have often thought upon death; and I find it the
least of all evils.
2. Under the fierce winds, the pines bend their heads;
and the mountain snow is swept away, forming immense
heights, and hiding everything from sight.
3. At this moment the gates opened, and a peasant
woman came out.
4. The sun was delightful; and the branches made that
gentle May rustling, which seems to come from nests, even
more than from the wind.
5. All stood prepared, and through the long, long
night,
Expectant pined for morn's returning ray. — Tasso.
220 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
6. Life is real; life is earnest!
7. He looketh upon the earth, and it trembleth; He
toucheth the hills, and they smoke.
8. The moon is glorious to-night, and the stars have
hidden their faces behind her silvery veil.
9. And ere the early bed-time came
The white drift piled the window frame;
And, through the glass, the clothes-lines posts
Looked in like tall and sheeted ghosts.
10. We had read
Of rare Aladdin's wondrous cave,
And to our own, his name we gave.
11. The hunter marked the mountain high,
The lone lake's western boundary,
And deemed the stag must turn to bay,
Where that huge rampart barred the way.
12. Song soothes our pains;
And age has pains to soothe.
13. For a few moments, the glow of sunset mingles with
that of sunrise, and one cannot tell which prevails. — Land
of the Midnight Sun.
14. He staid not for brake, and he stopped not for stone,
He swam the Eske River, where ford there was none.
15. The Ocean eagle soared
From his nest by the white wave's foam,
And the rocking pines of the forest roared :
This was their welcome home.
16. Ah ! distinctly I remember, it was in the black
December,
And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost
upon the floor.
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 221
17. All cannot be great; and nobody may reasonably
expect all the world to be engaged in lauding his merits.
18. They heard, and were abashed, and up they sprung
Upon the wing. — Milton.
19. Creditors have better memories than debtors; and
debtors are a superstitious set — great observers of set
days and times.
20. Genius has glue on its hands, and will take hold of
a marble slab.
Adversative Coordinate Clauses.
The second member of a compound sentence often
contains a thought which is in entire contrast with that in
the first member.
These expressions are called adversative.
They are joined to the first member of the sentence by
the adversative conjunction but.
The word but does not modify, though it always sug-
gests something opposed in some way to, the first state-
ment.
The opposition may be, simply, two contrasted state-
ments.
Ex. — I did not remain long in France; but spent
several months in Italy.
The second member may contain a statement opposed
to the inference that would naturally be drawn from the
statement made in the first member.
A feeling of deep sorrow was shown for a little time,
but it soon, passed away.
Adversative coordination is made emphatic by means of
the associate connectives:
Yet, still, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding, now,
then, and some others.
222 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
I went to the country to remain, only a few days; but I
found life there so full of delight that I did not return to
the city for a month.
This is a compound sentence. It is composed of two
members.
I went to the country to remain only a few days is the
first member.
I is the subject, it is unmodified.
TVettt is the predicate; it is modified by to the
country, a complex adverbial phrase ele-
ment; to country is the basis; country is
modified by the, an adjective word ele-
ment.
It is also modified by to remain only
a few days, an infinitive of purpose used
as an adverbial element.
To remain is the basis; it is modified
by only a few days, an adverbial phrase
element denoting time; of which [./br]
a few days is the basis; it is modified by
only. The basis of the phrase is for
days; days is limited by a few.
The second member of the compound sentence is:
But I found life there so full of delight that I did not
return to the city for a month.
It is joined to the first member by the coordinate adver-
sative conjunction but, which is used to indicate a thought
or result entirely opposed to what is found in the first
member.
COMPOUND SENTENCES.
223
It is complex; it contains a principal and a dependent
proposition.
I found life there so full of delight is the principal
proposition.
I is the subject; it is unmodified.
Found is the simple predicate. It is modi-
fied by the double object, life so full
of delight that I did not return to
the city for a month.
Life is the direct object; [to be~] so fidl
of delight, etc., is the attributive ob-
ject. Full is the basis, it is an ad-
jective used as predicate objectivi-
tive, belonging to life; it is modified
by so, an adverb of degree, and by
of delight, an indirect objective ele-
ment.
Full is also modified by the sub-
ordinate clause, that I did not re-
turn to the city for a month, an ad-
verbial clause element denoting con-
sequence. That is a subordinate
conjunction, used to join the sub-
ordinate clause to the word full in
the principal clause.
I is the subject; it is unmodified.
Did return is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by for a month, an adverbial
phrase element, denoting time. The
expression is modified by the modal
adverb not, an adverbial word ele-
ment denoting negation.
224
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Still stands the forest primeval, bxt under the shade
of its branches
Dwells another race, with other customs and language.
This is a compound sentence, consisting of two members.
Still stands the forest primeval, is the tirst member;
and, but under the shade of its branches, Dwells another
race, is the second member.
Forest is the simple subject of the first member of
the compound sentence; it is modified by
the, a simple adjective word element, and
by primeval, also, a simple adjective word
element.
Stdflds is the simple predicate; it is modified by
still, a simple adverbial word element, de-
noting- time.
Race is the simple subject of the second mem-
ber; it is modified by another, a simple ad-
jective word element, and by with other
customs and language, a compound adjec-
tive phrase element; with customs is the
basis of the first member of the compound
adjective element; customs is modified by
other, a simple adjective word element;
(with) language is the second member,
language is modified by other, understood.
Dwells is the predicate; it is modified by under the
shade of its branches, a complex adverbial
phrase element of place; under shade is the
basis, shade is modified by of its branches,
a complex adjective phrase element;
branches is the basis, modified by its, a sim-
ple adjective word element.
COMPOUND SENTENCES. &&0
But is a coordinate adversative connec-
tive, used to join the second member,
which is used to show a contrast, between
the condition of the forest (which is the
same now as then) and the condition of the
village which is different.
Exercises upon Compound Sentences,
coordinate adversative constructions.
1. The moon has not risen yet; but the stars are very-
bright.
2. I cannot go; but I will send all that is necessary for
their comfort.
3. The important invention is said to have been made
in the thirteenth century; but it was not in common use
until the fourteenth, or even the beginning of the fifteenth
century.
4. The truest help we can render to an afflicted man, is
not to take his burden from him, but to call out his best
strength, that he may be able to bear the burden.
5. Pleasure may fill up the interstices of life, but it is
poor material to build its frame-work out of.
6. He went, but did not remain long.
7. We promise according to our hopes; but perform
according to our fears.
8. As usual in all congregations, some fell asleep; but
in my pew a sleeper was aroused by a pinch of snufF.
9. There was no servility of manner; but all were
courteous.
10. T would make
Reason my guide, but she should sometimes sit
Patiently by the wayside, while I traced
The mazes of the pleasant wilderness
Around me. — Hi:v w P,
P
226 syntax and analysis.
Alternative Coordinations.
Coordination is alternative when the members of a
compound sentence are considered separately; only one of
them containing a statement of a fact; but it is impossible
to know from the construction, which contains it.
Ex. — I will buy your part of the land, or J will sell
you mine.
Sometimes it is necessary to give a negative significa-
tion to alternative coordination.
Ex. — I will not sell my part of the land, nor will I
buy yours.
Alternative coordination is made emphatic by using
with the principal conjunctions, associate connectives or
correlatives; sometimes by both.
Ex. — Twill either buy your part of the land, or else
sell you mine.
The Alternative Conjunctions are:
Principal — or, nor
Associates — else , other w ise
Correlatives— either, neither, whether.
Either and whether are correlatives of or.
Ex. — I shall go either to-morrow or the day after.
I do not know whether I shall go to-morrow or
not.
Neither is a correlative of nor.
Ex. — I shall go neither to-morrow nor the day after.
Great care should be taken to avoid the use of neither,
when or is the principal conjunction.
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 227
The member of the compound sentence introduced by
an alternative conjunction is frequently elliptical.
Ex. — I shall go neither to-morrow nor (shall I go)
the dag after.
Else is sometimes used alone, in the second member of
a compound sentence, but or is always understood.
. Ex. — Turn away from the path of the wicked; else
it 'will lead you to destruction.
When whether is used as a correlative of or, the nega-
tive following or, should be not. JSfo is often incorrectly
used in such sentences.
Ex. — Whether I shall go or not is uncertain.
Otherwise is not often used in conversation, but it is
found often in argumentative or didactic discourses.
Ex. — Your arguments must have the semblance of
truth; otherwise they will not convince.
Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust,
Or Flattery soothe ihe dull, cold ear of death?
This is a compound interrogative sentence, consisting of
two members.
Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, is the first
member; Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death?
is the second member.
Voice is the simple subject of the first
member of the sentence; it is modi-
fied by Honor's, a simple adjective
word element.
228 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Can provoke is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by the silent dust, a complex ob-
jective word element, modified by
silent, a simple adjective word ele-
ment; silent dust is modified by the,
a simple adjective word element.
Flattery is the subject of the second member;
it is unmodified.
(Can) Soothe is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by the dull, cold ear of death,
a complex objective word element;
ear is the basis, it is modified by
cold, a simple adjective word ele-
ment, and by dull, a simple adjec-
tive word element. Each of the ele-
ments, dull and cold, depends di-
rectly upon the word ear. Ear is
modified, also, by of death, a simple
adjective phrase element.
Or is a co5rdinate alternative
conjunction, used to join the two
members of the compound sentence.
EXERCISES UPON COORDINATE ALTERNATIVE CLAUSES.
1. Canst thou bind the sweet influences of the Pleiades,
or loose the bands of Orion?— Bible.
2. My lips shall not speak wickedness, nor my tongue
utter deceit.
3. You must learn the value of time, or you will not
succeed in any undertaking.
4. Obey your teacher, or suffer the consequences.
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 229
5. My tongue shall praise Thee continually, or be silent
forevermore.
6. None of them can, by any means, redeem his
brother, nor give to God a ransom for him. — Bible.
7. He is not a debtor to any man, nor does he intend
to be.
8. Is it a foolish dream, an idle and vague superstition,
Or has an angel passed and revealed the truth to my
spirit? —Evangeline.
Causal Coordination.
The second member of a compound sentence sometimes
expresses a reason for the statement made in the first
member.
In such sentences, for is generally used as the con-
nective.
Ex. — Praise ye the Lord; for it is good to sing
praises unto our God.
For is frequently used at the beginning of a sentence;
but it shows no grammatical relation to the preceding sen-
tence; the relation is in thought only. Many such con-
structions are found in the Bible.
Ex. — Enter not into the path of the wicked, and go
not in. the wag of evil men.
Avoid it; pass not by it, turn from if, and
pass away.
For they sleep not, except they hare dom mis-
ch ief. — Bible.
It will be seen, easily, that the sentence introduced by
For, is related only in thought to what preoedes.
230
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
When for is used to join two coordinate members of a
sentence, they (the members) should be separated by a
semicolon, if the coordination is close; but if the coordina-
tion is not very close, they should be separated by a colon.
Finish your work to-day; for I want you to go a fish-
ing with me to-morrow.
This is a compound mixed sentence, consisting of two
members.
The first member, Finish your icorh to-day is impera-
tive.
The second member, for I want you to go a fishing with
me to-morrow, is declarative, and it is, also, causal.
You (understood) is the subject of the first member,
it is unmodified.
Finish
Want
is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by your work, a complex ob-
jective word element; wor/c is the
basis; it is modified by your, a
simple adjective word element.
Finish is modified, also, by
to-day (on to-day) a simple ad-
verbial phrase element of time.
is the subject of the second mem-
ber, unmodified.
is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by you to go a fishing with
me to-morrow, a complex double
objective element; you is the di-
rect object, unmodified, to go a
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 231
fishing with me to-morrow, is the
complex attributive object; to go
is the basis, modified by a fishing,
a simple adverbial phrase element
denoting purpose {a is equivalent
to at).
To go a fishing is modified by
with me, a simple adverbial ele-
ment of accompaniment; and, also,
by to-morrow, a simple adverbial
phrase element of time.
For is a coordinate causal con-
junction, used to join the two
members of the compound sen-
tence.
EXERCISES UPON COORDINATE CAUSAL CLAUSES.
1. O give thanks to the Lord of lords; for his mercy
endureth forever.
2. For a thousand years in thy sight are but as yester-
day, when it is past, and as a watch in the night.
3. Nevertheless, the niece ate, the housekeeper drank,
and Sancho Panza consoled himself; for legacies tend
much to moderate the grief that nature claims for the de-
ceased.
Emphatic Coordination and Models for Analyzing
Compound Sentences Made Emphatic by the Use
op Correlatives and Associate Connectives.
Copulative coordination is made emphatic by using
with and the correlative both, and the following assooiates:
232 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
besides; likewise; moreover; therefore;
then; further; furthermore; even;
hence; wherefore also; so now.
And is often omitted, leaving the associate alone, as
connective; and sometimes a sentence is introduced by an
associate connective.
The use of the associate alone, is very common in the
Bible, particularly at the beginning of a sentence.
Ex. — Wherefore, also, we pray always for you, etc.
Moreover, Job continued his parable, etc.
Even to-day is my complaint better.
Therefore they say unto God, Depart from us;
for we desire not the knowledge of thy
ways.
Adversative coordination, with but used to unite
the members of a sentence, is not emphatic.
Adversative coordination is made emphatic by using
the following associate connectives with but :
however, now, still , yet, notwithstanding,
nevertheless, etc.
The associate of the adversative clause is frequently
used alone, and sometimes introduces a sentence.
Ex. — Nevertheless my loving kindness will 1 not
utterly take from him, nor suffer my faith-
fulness to fail.
Alternative coordination with or is unemphatic;
also, with nor; but with them are associated, for emphasis,
else and otherwise. Emphasis is also given by using the
correlative either and whether with or, and neither, with
nor.
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 233
As in the case of copulative and of adversative coordi-
nation, the associate connective is often used alone; and
sometimes it is used to introduce a sentence; the correla-
tive is sometimes used alone also.
Ex. — I have none, else would I give it.
Dare to do right, otherwise your conduct will
be cowardly.
Neither is there any day's-man betwixt us that
might lay his hand upon us both. — Bible.
The topaz of Ethiopia shall not be equal to it,
neither shall it be valued with pure gold.
— Bible.
When coordinate conjunctions, — principal conjunctions,
as: and, but, or, nor, or the associate connectives are used
at the beginning of a sentence they indicate no gram-
matical union, but only coordination in thought.
Write sentences to illustrate emphatic coordinate con-
structions.
He both maintained the family by his labor, and be-
sides he earned money enough to buy the neat little cottage
where they live.
This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of
two members.
He both maintained the family by his labor is the first
member of the sentence; and besides h> earned money
enough to buy the neat little cottage where they fir,- is the
second member.
He is the subject of the first member; it
is unmodified.
10*
234
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Maintained is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by the family, a complex objec-
tive word element; family is the
basis, modified by the, a simple ad-
jective word element. Maintained
is modified, also, by, by his labor, a
complex adverbial phrase element,
denoting manner; by labor is the
basis; labor is modified by his, a
simple adjective word element.
Both is a conjunction; it is a correlative
of and' it is used to make the coor-
dination emphatic.
He is the subject of the second member
of the sentence; it is unmodified.
Earned is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by money enough to buy the
neat little cottage where they live, a
complex objective word element;
money is the basis; it is modified by
enough, to buy the neat little cottage
ichere they live, a complex adjective
word element; enough is the basis;
it is modified by to buy the neat
little cottage where they live, a com-
plex adverbial phrase element of
purpose; to buy is the basis; it is
modified by the neat little cottage
where they live, a complex objective
word element; cottage is the basis;
it is modified by little, a simple ad-
jective word element; little cottage
is modified by neat, a simple adjec-
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 235
tive word element; neat little cottage
is modified by the, a simple adjective
word element.
Cottage is modified, also, by
where they live, a simple adjective
clause element. Where is equivalent
to in which.
They is the subject of the subordinate
clause; it is unmodified.
Live is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by where, a simple adverbial
element denoting place.
The members of the compound
sentence are connected by and, a
coordinate copulative conjunction,
used to join parts of sentences that
harmonize with each other; the
coordination is strengthened by the
associate connective besides' and by
the correlative both, as seen above.
In the days of his prosperity, he was a friend to the
poor and the needy, and shall toe not, tlierefore, aid him
in the time of his adversity?
This is a compound mixed sentence.
The first member, In the days of his prosperity^ he woe
a friend to the poor and needy, is declarative; the second
member, and shall we not, therefore, aid hint in the tint, of
his adversity? is interrogative, a question of appeal.
236 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
He is the subject of the first member of
the sentence ; it is unmodified.
Was friend is the predicate; teas is the cop-
ula ; friend is the substantive
attribute, modified by to the poor
and the needy, a compound adjective
phrase element; to poor is the basis
of the first member of the compound
adjective element; poor is the basis,
modified by the, a simple adjective
word element.
(To) needy is the basis of the
second member; needy is modified
by the, a simple adjective word
element.
And is a coordinate copulative
conjunction, used to connect the
members of the compound phrase
element.
Was a friend to the poor and the
needy, is modified by in the days of
his prosperity, a complex adverbial
phrase element denoting time; in
days is the basis; days is modified
by the, a simple adjective word ele-
ment; and by of his prosperity, a
a complex adjective phrase element;
of prosperity is the basis; prosperity
is modified by the adjective word
element, his.
We is the subject of the second member
of the sentence; it is unmodified.
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 237
Shall aid is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by him, a simple objective word
element; and by in the time of his
adversity, a complex adverbial phrase
element; in time is the basis; time
is modified by the, an adjective word
element, and by of adversity, a simple
adjective phrase element. The en-
tire question is modified by not a
model adverb.
And is a coordinate, copulative
conjunction, used to connect the two
members of the sentence.
Therefore is an associate connec-
tive, used with and to make the
coordination emphatic; it is an illa-
tive conjunction, showing, or asking
for, a consequence or conclusion to
be drawn from the first member.
MODEL III.
E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries>
E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires.
This is a compound sentence, consisting of two mem-
bers, which are coordinate; and, as they harmonize, the
construction is copidative. The conjunction is omitted.
E'en from the tombs the voice of nature cries, is the first
member; E'en, in our ashes live their wonted fires, is the
second member.
Voice is the simple subject of the first member; it
is modified by trie, a simple adjeotive word
element, and by of intture, a simple adjective
phrase element.
238 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Cries is the simple predicate. It is modified by
E^en from the tomb, a complex adverbial
phrase element of place; from tomb, is the
basis; it is modified by e'en (even), a simple
adverbial word element, used with and (un-
derstood) to make emphatic coordination with
the preceding propositions. From tomb is
the basis of the phrase element; tomb is mod-
ified by the, a simple adjective word element.
Fives is the simple subject of the second member
of the compound sentence; it is modified
by wonted, a simple adjective word element;
wonted fires is modified by their, a simple
adjective word element.
Z/ive is the simple predicate; it is modified by
E'en in our ashes, a complex adverbial ele-
ment, denoting place; in our ashes is the
basis, modified by e'en (even), an adverbial
word element, used to give intensity to the
meaning, and, also, with and understood, to
make emphatic coordination. In ashes is the
basis of the phrase, ashes is modified by our,
a simple adjective word element.
MODEL IV.
Not only did I iirqe him to leave the country, but I
also aided him, in every %>ossible way, to do it.
This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of
two members.
Not only did I urge him to leave the country, is the
first member; and but I also aided him, in every way, to
do it is the second member.
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 239
I is the subject of the first member; it is
unmodified.
Did urge is the simple predicate; it is modified by
him to leave the country, a double objec-
tive element; him is the direct object;
to leave the country is the attributive
object; to leave is the basis, modified by
the country, a complex objective word
element; country is the basis, modified
by the, a simple adjective word element.
I is the subject of the second member; it
is unmodified.
Aided is the simple predicate; it is modified by
him, a simple objective word element;
and by in every possible way, a complex
adverbial phrase element denoting man-
ner; in way is the basis; way is modified
by possible, a simple adjective word ele-
ment; and possible way is modified by
every, a simple adjective word element.
But is here used as a coordinate copula-
tive conjunction, uniting parts in har-
mony; also is an associate connective
of but, used for the sake of emphasis,
and not only is a correlative of but, used
for the same purpose.
model v.
-£ of the more valuable I of his immense trad of lain!
he has given you; but still you are not satisfied.
This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of
two members.
240
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
■J of the more valuable -|- of his immense tract of land
he has given you is the first member; but still you are not
satisfied is the second member.
He is the subject of the first member,
unmodified.
Has given is the simple predicate, modified
by 3- of the more valuable \ of
his immense tract of land, a com-
plex direct objective word ele-
ment; •£ is the basis; it is modified
by of the more valuable £ of his
immense tract of land, a complex
adjective phrase element; of \ is
the basis; it is modified by more
valuable, a complex adjective word
element ; valuable is the basis,
modified by the adverbial element
more, used to denote the comparative
degree; more valuable \ is modi-
fied by the, a simple adjective word
element; \ is modified, also, by of
his immense tract of land, a com-
plex adjective phrase element; of
tract is the basis; tract is modified
by immense, a simple adjective word
element; immense tract is modified
by his, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
Tract is modified, also, by of
land, a simple adjective phrase ele-
ment.
You is the second member of the com-
pound sentence, unmodified.
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 241
Are satisfied is the simple predicate; are is the
copula and satisfied is the verbal
attribute. The entire member oi' the
sentence is modified by not, a modal
negative adverb.
But is a co5rdinate adversative
conjunction; still is used with but to
give emphasis.
MODEL VI.
Neither did he see the messenger, nor did he receive the
telegram.
This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of
two members.
Neither did he see the messenger, is the first member;
nor did he receive the telegram,\s the second member.
He is the subject of the first member; it
is unmodified.
Did see is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by the messenger, a complex
objective word element; messenger
is the basis, modified by the, a simple
adjective word element.
He is the subject of the second member;
it is unmodified.
Did receive is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by the telegram^ a complex
objective word element; telegram is
' the basis, modified by the, a simple
adjective word element. .V<</' is a
coordinate alternative conjunction;
neither is a correlative of nor, used
lor emphasis.
242
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
MODEL VII.
He either will leave to-morrow, or else he will remain <i
week longer.
This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of
two members.
He either will leave to-morrow,\s the first member; or
else he will remain a week longer,is the second member.
He is the subject of the first member;,
unmodified.
Will leave is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by (on) to-morrow, a simple
adverbial phrase element.
He is the subject of the second member,
unmodified.
Will VeWWlilX is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by a iceek longer, a complex
adverbial word element; longer is
the basis;, it is modified by (by) a
week, a complex adverbial phrase
element of duration of time; (by)
week is the basis; week is modified
by a, a simple adjective word ele-
ment. The two members are con-
nected by or, a coordinate alterna-
tive conjunction. The coordination
is made emphatic by the associate
conjunction else, and by the correla-
tive either.
CONDENSED SENTENCES. 243
CONDENSED OR PARTIALLY COMPOUND
SENTENCES.
RULE XIX.
When a sentence consists of a compound subject and a
simple predicate, or a simple subject and a co?npound pre-
dicate, it should be called, in analysis, a partially com-
pound sentence.
Language is often made more effective,
and also more pleasing to the ear, by omit-
ting parts which are common to the subject
or to the predicate, or to any of the subor-
dinate elements.
Repetitions should always be avoided, unless great
emphasis is required.
Abbreviations are so numerous and so various,
especially in conversation, that it would be difficult to give
illustrations of all of them.
The student, however, will not find it difficult to supply
omissions, if it be necessary to do so, in order to give a
correct analysis of the sentence.
Ellipsis, or intentional omission, should be carefully
distinguished from careless omission, and, also, from the
abridgment of subordinate propositions.
Condensed sentences are sometimes railed con-
tracted compound sentences, sometimes abbreviated Ben-
tences,but the term commonly used is, partially comp
sentences.
244: SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Those sentences only, whose subject, or predicate verb
is compound, will be treated as partially compound.
Ex. — The moon and the stars shine by night.
The lark soars on high, and sings its morning
song of praise.
MODEL I.
And further north, the priest stands at his door in the
Moarm midnight, and lights his pipe with a common burn-
ing-glass.— Land of the Midnight Sun.
This is a contracted (or partially compound) sentence,
consisting of one subject and two predicates.
Priest is the simple subject, modified
by the, a simple adjective
word element.
Stdllds and lights is the compound predicate,
without its modifiers. Stands
is the first member of the
compound predicate; it is
modified by at his door, a
complex adverbial phrase ele-
ment of place; at door is the
basis; door is modified by his,
a simple adjective word ele-
ment. Stands is modified
also by in the warm midnight,
a complex adverbial phrase
element, denoting time ; in
midnight is the basis; mid-
ii i glit is modified by rearm,
a simple adjective word ele-
CONDENSED SENTENCES. 245
ment; warm midnight is mod-
ified by the, a simple adjective
word element.
JLightS is the second member of the
compound unmodified predi-
cate; it is modified by his
pipe, a complex objective
word element (direct object);
pipe is the basis, modified by
his, a simple adjective word
element.
Lights is modified also by
with a common burning-glass,
a complex adverbial phrase
element of manner, denoting
instrument ; toith burning-
glass is the basis; burning-
glass is modified by common,
a simple adjective word ele-
ment; co?nmon burning-glass
is modified by a, a simple
adjective word element.
MODEL II.
^Tis distance lends enchantment to the view,
And robes the mountain in its azure hue. — Campbell.
This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of
one principal, and two subordinate propositions. It is
distance,'^ the principal proposition; {that) lends enchant-
ment to the view, and (that) robes the mountain in its azure
hue,&re the two subordinate propositions, which are coor-
dinate with each other. In the analysis of this sentence it
is necessary to supply ellipses, it is, for 'tis; and (hat, as
the subject of each subordinate proposition.
246
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
It is the simple subject of the principal propo-
sition; it is modified by (that) lends enchant-
ment to the view, and (that) robes the moun-
tain in its azure hue, a compound adjective
clause element.
That is the subject of the first subordinate clause;
it is unmodified. (That is a relative pronoun,
referring to It as antecedent; It represents
the thing.
Leflds is the simple predicate; it is modified by
enchantment, a simple objective word ele-
ment, direct object; and by to the view, a
complex objective phrase element, indirect
object; to view is the basis; view is modified
by the.
That is the subject of the second subordinate
clause, unmodified.
Hohes is the simple predicate; it is modified by
the mountain, a complex objective word
element; mountain is the basis; it is modi-
fied by the, a simple adjective word ele-
ment. Robes is modified, also, by in its
azure hue, a complex adverbial phrase ele-
ment denoting manner; in hue is the basis;
hue is modified by azure, a simple adjective
word element; azure hue is modified by its,
a simple adjective word element.
The two subordinate clauses are con-
nected by and. -a coordinate copulative con-
junction.
CONDENSED SENTENCES. 247
EXERCISES UPON CONTRACTED COMPOUND SENTENCES.
1. Announced by all the trumpets of the sky,
Arrives the snow; and, driving o'er the fields,
Seems nowhere to alight. — Emerson.
2. Of course, all good poetry descriptive of rural life
is essentially pastoral, or has the effect of the pastoral, on
the minds of men living in cities. — Rusktn.
3. The prophet hears it, and leaves his cave.
— Krummacher
4. The town of Pompeii was involved in the same
dreadful catastrophe; but was not discovered till nearly
forty years after the "discovery of Hereulaneum.
— Kotzebue.
5. She stopped where the cool spring bubbled up,
And filled for him her small tin cup. — Whittier.
6. And I'd feed the hungry, and clothe the poor.
— Whittier.
7. Long at the window he stood, and wistfully gazed at
the landscape. — Longfellow.
8. In the fisherman's cot, the wheel and the loom are
still busy. — Evangeline.
9. Maidens still wear their Norman caps, and their
kirtles of homespun,
And by the evening fire repeat Evangeline's story.
— EvA\«;r.i .ink.
10. We forded a stream about four feet deep, and
reached a sort of cave formed by boulders, where the T in-
landers wanted to sleep. — Land of tiik Midnight Si n.
11. The teachers and the pupils went, bul did not re-
main verv lono-.
248 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
12. They crossed the bridge, and turned up the stream,
passing under an arch of stone, which serves as a gateway
to this enchanted valley of Berkenau. — Hyperion.
13. Then shall He speak unto them in his wrath, and vex
them in his sore displeasure. — Bible.
14. And all the rulers of the provinces, and the lieuten-
ants, and the deputies and officers of the king, helped the
Jews. — Bible.
15. My days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle, and are
spent without hope. — Job.
16. Governors and kings have little time to rest.
17. Sorrow and joy are impartial visitors.
18. She works and waits.
19. The sun and the moon give us light.
Let the pupil write original sentences predicating one
thing of the following compound subjects.
The sun, moon and stars;
John and William;
The boys and the girls;
The preacher or the people;
The air, the earth, and the water.
Write original sentences having simple subjects for the
following compound predicates:
Writes and ciphers; plays and sings; studies and
works; will be given and received; will be prolonged and
blessed.
IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. 249
IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. •
Idiomatic expressions are words, phrases and
clauses used out of their ordinary signification.
These peculiar constructions are abundant in the
English language, to which many of them add beauty and
strength, but, as they have entered into the language re-
gardless of the laws of syntax, they will not yield to any
method of analysis.
A few of these idiomatic constructions are given and
the peculiarities pointed out.
1. I had rather be a dog and bay the moon than
such a Roman. — Shakespeare.
In this sentence, it is impossible to show a relation (of
any kind) of be to had.
The origin of the expression is not known, but many
consider it a corruption of would; and it would seem easy
to change, by rapid utterance, I xoould to I\l, and that
(I'd) to I had.
Rather is an adverb, used to denote preference.
The expressions had rather, had better, had as well,
are used by the best writers and speakers.
2. Woe worth the day!— Scott.
This expression is only a fragment of a sentence; it
cannot be analyzed.
Worth is from the antiquated verb iccorlha n , to
become.
250 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
The expression means, Let woe be to the day.
3. I teas going to do it when you came in.
4. I went to move the table and hurt my hand.
In the first of the foregoing sentences, I icas going to
do it, when used idiomatically, means, I teas just about to
do it, etc.
When the second sentence is used idiomatically it
means, I was attempting to move the table, etc.
As it is impossible to show the relation of the infinitives
in the sentences, to either going or to went, no satisfactory
analysis is possible.
In the ordinary use of the words going and went, the
infinitive denotes purpose.
I was going (somewhere) for the purpose, etc.
I went (somewhere) for the purpose.
5. HoiV do you do, is another idiomatic expression,
indispensable in our daily intercourse, but il cannot be
satisfactorily analyzed. The word do, the last word in the
expression, refers to the state of health, not to action.
«?*
As it has been said, the English language is rich in
idioms, but they are too numerous to mention.
A language without idioms would be poor indeed.
Care should be taken to distinguish between an idiom-
atic expression and what is termed a slang expression.
Let the pupil find idiomatic expressions in the Reader,
or in any other book.
MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 251
MODELS OF ANALYSTS OF SENTENCES WITH
PECULIAR CONSTRUCTION.
MODEL I.
That you have wrongVl me, doth appear
In this :
You have condemned and noted Lucius Fella,
For taking bribes here of the Sardians;
Wherein my letters, praying on his side,
Because I knew the man, were slighted off.
— Shakespeare.
It is a complex declarative sentence, consisting ol four
propositions:
1. That you have wronged me, doth appear in this.
2. You have condemned and noted Lucius Pella, For
taking bribes here of the Sardians.
3. Wherein my letters, praying on his side, were
slighted off.
4. Because I knew the man.
That you have wronged me, doth appear in, this, is the
principal proposition.
That you have
WVOlig'tl Hie is a substantive clause, used as
the subject of the principal
proposition.
That is used simply to intro-
duce the clause; it is not here a
connective.
As subject, it should be dis-
posed oi' as a noun, in the third
person, singular number, neuter
252 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
gender, and in the nominative
case, subject of doth appear.
In analysis it may be resolved
into its component parts.
You is the subject; it is unmodified.
Have ivrotig'd is the simple predicate; it is
modified by me, a simple ob-
jective word element (direct
object).
Doth appear is the simple predicate of the
principal proposition; it is mod-
fied by in this: You have con-
demned and noted Lucius Pella,
and all that follows, a complex
adverbial phrase element; in
this is the basis; this is modified
by the four lines following, — a
complex adjective clause ele-
ment, by apposition.
You is the subject of the first sub-
ordinate proposition; it is not
modified.
Have condemned
and noted is the compound predicate; it is
modified by Lucius Pella, a
simple objective word element.
Have condemned and noted
Lucius Pella, is modified by
For taking bribes here of the
Sardians, a complex adverbial
phrase element, denoting a
MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 253
cause or reason; For talcing is
the basis {taking is a present
active participle, used as a noun
in the objective after For, but
modified as a verb); taking is
modified by bribes, a simple ob-
jective word element (direct
object), and by of the Sardians,
a complex objective phrase ele-
ment (indirect object); taking
is modified also by here, a sim-
ple adverbial element of place.
The entire expression, You have
condemned and noted Lucius
Fella, For taking bribes here of
the Sardians, is modified by
Wherein my letters, praying on
his side, Because I knew the
man, were slighted off, a com-
plex adjective clause element.
Wherein is a relative adverb,
equivalent to concerning which,
and relates to what is in the two
lines preceding.
Lettevs is the simple subject; it is mod-
ified by mi/, a simple adjective
word element; and by praying
on his side, Because I kneto the
man, a complex adjective word
element, participial construc-
tion ; praying is the !m>is; it is
modified by <>// his side, ;< com-
plex adverbial phrase element
254
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
place; on side is the basis; side
is modified by his, a simple
adjective word element.
Praying on //is side is mod-
ified by Because I knew the
man, an adverbial clause ele-
ment, denoting a cause or a
reason.
I
Knew
is the subject, unmodified.
is the simple predicate; it is
modified by the man, a complex
objective word element (direct
object); man is the basis; it is
modified by the, a simple adjec-
tive word element.
Were slighted off
is the predicate; it is that which
is affirmed of lettersj it is un-
modified.
The predicate consists of the
copula were, and the verbal at-
tribute, slighted off. Were
slighted off is a compound verb.
Off should not be separated
from the verb, in analysis or in
parsing.
Because is a causal conjunc-
tion, used as a connective, to
join the subordinate clause to
the element which it modifies.
MODELS FOR ANALYSIS.
MODEL II.
The performance vms not worth
This is a simple declarative sentence.
Performance is the simple subject; it is modi-
fied by the, a simple adjective
word element.
Was ivortJi
is the simple predicate; was is the
copula, and worth is the adjective
attribute. • Worth is modified by
seeing (a participial noun) an indi-
rect objective element.
Note. — Worth is followed by an indirect object, with
no preposition expressed when it (worth) is used as an
adjective.
MODEL III.
On my honor, I have told you all.
This is a simple declarative sentence.
I is the subject, unmodified.
Have told
On my honor
is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by all, a simple direct objec-
tive word element; and by ;/<>>', a
simple objective phrase element,
indirect object.
is used by way of asseveration, to
give emphasis to the expression.
256
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
MODEL IV.
For he saith to the snoio, Be thou on the earth; likewise
to the small rainyand to the great rain of his strength. —
Bible.
This is a complex mixed sentence; the principal prop-
osition is declarative; the subordinate proposition is imper-
ative.
He saith to the snow, likewise to the small rain, and to
the great rain of his strength is the principal proposition.
Be thou on the earth is the subordinate proposition,
though it is really the leading thought; it is subordinate,
only because it is a direct quotation.
He is the subject of the principal proposition,
unmodified.
Sditll is the simple predicate; it is modified by Be
thou on the earth, a simple direct objective
clause element.
TllOil is the subject, unmodified.
He is the simple predicate; it is used to denote
existence; it is modified by on the earth, a
complex adverbial phrase element denoting
place; on earth is the basis; earth is modified
by the, a simple adjective word element.
Saith is modified also by to the snow, likewise
to the small rain, and to the great rain of his
strength, a compound objective phrase ele-
ment; to the snow is the first member; to stiow
is the basis; snow is modified by the. Bike-
wise to the small rain is the second member;
to rain is the basis; rain is modified by small >
MODELS FOli ANALYSIS. 257
a simple adjective word element. Small rain
is modified by the, a simple adjective word
element. The second member of the phrase
element is connected to the first by likewise,
generally used as an associate of and, but
here it may be regarded as a real connective
(coordinate copulative conjunction), though
and may be supplied.
And to the great rain of his strength is
the third member of the objective phrase ele-
ment, joined to the second by the coordinate
copulative conjunction and; to rain is the
basis; rain is modified by great, a simple
adjective word element; great rain is modi-
fied by the, a simple adjective word element;
rain, is modified also by of his strength, a
complex adjective phrase element.
Be thou on the earth is the prominent
thought in the sentence, and is subordinate
in construction, only because it is direct quo-
tation, a part of what was said.
Long Indian canes, with iron tipped they bear,
And upon steeds so nimbi;/ sweep "long,
You'd say a whirlwind blew them past. — Tasso.
This is a complex sentence; the principal proposition is
partially compound, containing one subject and two predi-
cate verbs.
Long Indian canes, with iron tipped they bear, I I
upon steeds so nimbly sweep along, is the principal propo-
sition.
S 11*
258
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
You'd say a whirlwind blew them past, is the subordi-
nate complex proposition.
They
Bear
Sweep along
is the subject of the principal propo-
sition, unmodified.
is the first member of the compound
predicate; it is modified by Long
Indian canes, toith iron tipped, a
complex objective word element.
Canes is the basis, modified by
Indian, a simple adjective word
element; Indian canes is modified
by Long, a simple adjective ele-
ment. Canes is modified, also, by
with iron tipped, a complex adjective
word element, participial construc-
tion; tipped is the basis, modified by
toith iron, a simple adverbial phrase
element of manner.
is the second member of the com-
pound predicate. (Along is a prepo-
sition usually, but it enters into and
changes the meaning' of the verb
sweep so materially that with it
(sioeep), it forms a compound verb.
Sweep along is modified by upon
steeds, a simple adverbial phrase ele-
ment of manner, and by so nimbly,
a complex adverbial word element
denoting manner; nimbly is the
basis, modified by so, a simple ad-
verbial word element of degree.
MODELS FOB ANALYSIS.
Nimbly is modified, also, by
YoiCd say a whirlwind blew them
past, a complex adverbial clause
element denoting consequence.
That should be supplied before
you, and before a whirlwind^ — Thai
you would say that a whirlwind blew
them past
You is the subject of the first subordi-
nate proposition, unmodified.
Would say is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by that a whirlwind blew them
past, a simple objective clause ele-
ment.
W/lirlwind is the simple subject of the objective
clause, modified by a, a simple ad-
jective word element.
Slew is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by them, a simple objective word
element; and by past, a simple ad-
verbial word element.
/So is not only an adverb of
degree, but is also a correlative of
that, the subordinate conjunct inn
(understood) connecting the clause
element to the adverb nimbi;/.
That is understood also, before
the last clause.
260 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
MODEL VI.
Then methought the air greto denser, perf timed from an
unseen censer,
Swung by angels, whose faint footfalls tinkled on the tufted
floor. — Poe.
This is a, complex declarative sentence. The subject is
a clause, which contains another clause used as a modifier.
Then methought (that understood) the air grew denser,
perfumed from an unseen censer, swung by angels, is the
principal proposition ; whose faint footfalls tinkled on the
tufted floor, is the subordinate proposition.
That the air grew denser, perfumed from
an unseen censer „
Swung by angels, is the simple subject.
Thought is the simple predicate; it
is modified by to me, an in-
direct objective phrase ele-
ment.
Thought, in methought,
is derived from thincan, to
seem, to appear, and not
from thencan, to think.
Air is the simple subject of the
substantive clause subject;
it is modified by the, a
simple adjective word ele-
ment, and by perfumed
from an unseen censer,
swung by angels, whose
faint footfalls tinkled on
MODELS FOli ANALYSIS. WL
the tufted floor, a complex
adjective word element,
participial construction.
Perfumed is the basis;
it is modified by from an
unseen censer, swung by
angels, whose faint footfalls
tinkled on the tufted floor,
a complex adverbial phrase
element denoting place;
from censer is the basis;
censer is modified by uu-
seeti, a simple adjective
word element; unseen cai-
ser is modified by "//, a
simple adjective word ele-
ment. Censer is modified,
also, by swung by angels,
whose faint footfalls tinkled
on the tufted floor, a com-
plex adjective word ele-
ment, participial construc-
tion. Strung is the basis;
it is modified by, by angAh
whose faint footfalls tinkled
on trie tufted floor, a com-
plex adverbial phrase ele-
ment denoting agency; by
angels is the basis; angeh
is modified by whom faint
footfalls tinklt d <>n the
tufted floor, a Bimple adjeo-
tive clause element
262
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
Footfalls
Tinkled
Grew denser
is the simple subject of the
subordinate clause; it is
modified by faint, a simple
adjective word element;
faint footfalls is modified
by whose, a simple adjective
word element.
is the simple predicate; it is
modified by on the tufted
floor, a complex adverbial
phrase element, of place; on
floor is the basis; floor is
modified by tufted, a simple
adjective word element.
is the predicate of the
clause used as subject (it
is predicated of air).
Grew is a copulative
verb, used to connect the
adjective attribute denser to
the subject air.
EXERCISES ON SENTENCES CONTAINING METHINKS.
1. Methinks that the stars look down pityingly upon
this scene of sorrow.
2. Methought there was a proclamation made by Jupiter,
that every mortal should bring in his griefs and calamities,
and throw them together in a heap. — Addison.
3. And methought that the light-house looked lovely as
as Hope,
That Star on life's tremulous ocean.
— MOORE.
MODELS FOU ANALYSIS. 263
MODEL VII.
From peak to peak, the rattling crags among,
Leaps the live thunder. — Byron.
This sentence is transposed, for rhetorical effect; the
elements are inverted or placed but of their natural order.
It is a simple declarative sentence.
The live thunder leaps among Ihe crags, from peak to
peak, is the natural order of arrangement.
Thunder is the simple subject; it is limited by
live, a simple adjective word element;
live thunder is limited by the, a simple
adjective word element.
LecipS is the simple predicate; it is modified by
"mong the crags, a eomplex adverbial
phrase element, denoting place; among
crags is the basis; crags is modified by
the,' an adjective word element. Leaps
is modified also by from peak to peak, a
complex adverbial phrase element, of
manner, showing how the thunder leaps
among the crags; and it also refers to
place. From }><><ik is the basis; it i-s
moililied by to peak, a simple adverbial
phrase element.
Modiol for Analyzing; a Complex Interrogative
Sentence.
Who laid the cornerstone thereof;
When the morning-stars sang together,
and all the sons of God shouted for joyt
This is a complex interrogative sentenoe, consisting of
three propositions, one principal and two subordinate
propositions.
264
SYNTAX AXD ANALYSIS.
Who laid the corner-stone thereof, is the principal
proposition; When the morning -stars sang together is the
first subordinate proposition; (when) all the sons of God
shouted for joy is the second!
The two subordinate propositions are coordinate with
each other.
^^Jlo
Laid
Morning-stars
Sang
is the subject of
proposition; it is
the principal
also an inter-
rogative pronoun, used to inquire
for an antecedent, which is found
in the answer; it is unmodified.
is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by the corner-stone thereof
a complex objective word element;
corner-stone is the basis; it is
modified by thereof, a simple ad-
jective word element, equivalent
to of it. Laid the corner-stone
thereof is modified by When the
morning-stars sang together, and
(when) all the sons of God shouted
for joy, a compound adverbial
clause element denoting time sim-
ultaneous. The two clauses are
connected by the coordinate copu-
lative conjunction and.
is the simple subject (it is a com-
pound word); it is modified by
the, a simple adjective word ele-
ment.
is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by together, a simple adjective
MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 365
word element, denoting accompa-
niment; and by when, an adverbial
word element, denoting time.
SOUS is the simple subject of the second
member of the compound subor-
dinate clause element; it is modi-
fied by the, a simple adjective
word element; the sons is modified
by all, a simple adjective word
element; sons is modified, also, by
of God, a simple adjective phrase
element.
Shouted, is the simple predicate; it is modi-
fied by for } 01/ , a simple adverbial
phrase element denoting the cause
or reason.
Model for Outline Analysis.
Of Man's first disobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat.
Sing, heavenly Muse, that on the secret top
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire
That shepherd, who first taught the hi avenly s, , -/,
In the beginning how the heavens and earth
Hose out of chaos:
This is the first member of the compound sentenoe
which is the opening sentence of Paradise Lost; but it will
be disposed of as one entire sentence.
12
266
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
It is a complex imperative sentence; the following is
the natural otder of arrangement:
1. Heavenly Muse, Independent by address.
2. That on the secret
top of Oreb or of
Sinai didst in-
spire that shep-
herd. Basis of the complex adjec •
tive clause element which
modifies Muse; this ele-
ment contains three clauses.
Who first taught
the heavenly
seed, In the
beginning
is the subordinate adjective
clause, used to limit shep-
herd; it is a complex adjec-
tive clause; taught is modi-
fied by How the heavens
and earth Rose out of chaos,
an objective clause element.
All sfiven above is independent by direct address. It
has no grammatical relation, whatever, to the sentence,
though closely connected in thought.
4. Thou (understood)
Subject.
5. Sing
Predicate Verb
MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 267
6. Of Man's first dis-
obedience and
the fruit of the
forbidden tree, Basis of the complex objec-
tive phrase element.
7. Wliose mortal taste
brought death into
the world, with loss
of Eden, Adjective clause element,
used to modify fruit.
With loss of Eden,
an adverbial element of
accompaniment.
8. Till one greater man
restore us and regain
the blissful seat. Compound adverbial ele-
ment of time.
MODEL II.
At summer eve, when Heaven's ethereal bow
Spans loith bright arch the glittering hills below,
Why to yon mountain turn* the musing eye,
Whose sunbright summit mingles with the sky?
It is a complex interrogative sentence. It is an invert d
sentence. The following is the natural order of arrange-
ment.
Whff Interrogative adverb, used
to ask for a cause or reason.
The musing eye Subject with modifiers.
TlirnS Simple predicate.
SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
To yon mountain
whose sunbright
summit mingles
with the sky,
Adverbial phrase element
denoting direction, com-
plex; modifying turns.
Whose sunbright
summit mingles with
the sky,
Subordinate adjective clause
element, modifying moun-
tain and forming a part of
the complex adverbial phrase
element of direction.
At summer eve
Adverbial phrase element of
time, modifying turns.
When Heaven's
ethereal bow spans
with bright arch the
glittering hills below
Below
A complex adjective clause
element (when is equivalent
to at which time), used to
modify eve.
is an adjective element, be-
longing to hills, equivalent
to which are below it.
EXERCISES.
EXERCISES FOR PUPILS.
Construct five sentences, arrange the words in natural
order, then change to the inverted order.
Find inverted sentences in a Reader, and arrange the
words in natural order.
Let the pupils arrange the words in the following sen-
tences, in their natural order, and then analyze the sen-
tences:
EXERCISES.
1. Far down the Beautiful River,
Past the' Ohio shore, and past the mouth of the
Wabash,
Into the golden stream, of the broad, and swift Mis-
sissippi,
Floated a cumbrous boat, that was rowed by x\cadian
boatmen. — Longfellow.
2. As boys on ivied towers and haunted rooms
At fall of twilight dare not cast an eye,
Fancy a ghost in everything that glooms,
And, hair on end, from the grim fancy fly;
So when beyond the hills these men descry
The hoar wood nodding to the winds light wings,
Alarmed, they turn and flee. — TASSO.
3. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered
weak and weary,
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten
love,
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there
came a tapping. — POB.
270 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS.
4. When thoughts
Of the last bitter hour come like a blight,
Over thy spirit, and sad images
Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall,
And breathless darkness, and the narrow house,
Make thee to shudder, and grow sick at heart,
Go forth, under the open sky, and list
To Nature's teaching. — Bryant.
Model for Analyzing Exclamatory Sentences.
How beautiful teas the hour of midnight!
— Land of the Midnight Sun.
This is a simple exclamatory sentence; it is expressive
of strong admiration.
Hour is the simple subject, modified by
the, a simple adjective word ele-
ment, and by of midnight, a
simple adjective phrase element.
Was beautiful is the simple predicate; was is the
copula; and beautiful is the adjec-
tive attribute. The attribute,
beautiful, is modified by how, a
simple adverbial word element of
degree, used also to indicate
emotion.
exercises upon exclamatory sentences.
1. O solitude! where are the charms that sages have
seen in thy face!
2. What a delightful day!
3. Oh had I known it sooner!
EXERCISES. ■> 1 ]
4. Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness!
5. Alas, what have I done!
6. How drowsy was the landscape!
7. Alas for him who never sees
The stars shine through his cypress trees!
— Whittier.
8. Boys, a path! — Whittier.
9. Therefore accomplish thy labor of love till the heart
is made Godlike,
Purified, strengthened, perfected, and rendered more
worthy of Heaven! — Longfellow.
10 Ah well! for us all some sweet hope lies.
Deeply buried from human eyes.
11. And, in the hereafter, angels may
Roll the stone from its grave away!
— Whittier.
12. How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of
him that bringeth good tidings, that publisheth peace!
— Bible.
INDEX.
PAGK.
A or an 36
A fishing 230
Abridged propositions 191
participial constructions 192-203
infinitive constructions 204
Adjective 38
pronominal, 38, 39
numeral 39, 41
qualifying 41, 43
Adjective element 34
word 34-54
phrase 56
clause 116-123
Adverbs. ? 1
time 72
place 72
cause, 73
manner 73
Advei hial element 71
word 71-80
phrase 81, 90
clause .136-191
Adversative conjunctions 221
Ago 78
Alternative conjunctions, 226
Along 85
Analysis 19
And 209
Apposition 48, 49, 123
Appeal,.. 90
As, adverb of degree 163
conjunction 136, 156
relative pronoun 108
Asseveration 90, 255
At, 85
Attribute, word 21-25
phrase 27-30
clause 101
Bad, badly 33
Be, uses of the verb, 19
to denote existence 20-21
as copula 21-25
Both, conjunction 233
But, conjunction 209
preposition 128, 147
relative pronoun 108, 109
Causal clause and causal coordina-
tion 150, 229
Clause element.. 97
Complex sentences 105
Compound sentences 209-242
Condensed sentences 243- 24 s
Conjunctions, co-ordinate, .20 \ 231, 232
Copula 21-25
Copulative verbs 30, 34, 64
Copulative conjunctions 209
Coi relatives 110
Comparison of equality 1 52
negative equality 152
inequality 155
Declarative sentence 15
Definite article 36
Discourse 129
direct 129
indirect 129
During 82
Either 39, 226
Elements 12, 14
Else 227, 227
Even 237
Exclamatory sentence 16-17
PAGE.
Expletive 78, 79
False Syntax 9
For, preposition 82. 83
subordinate conjunction 159
co-ordinate conjunction. 209. 211, 229
Had rather 249
Harmony 209, 210
Id iomatic constructions 249, 250
111 74
Illative clause 235, 237
Imperative sentence 16
In, into 85
Indefinite article 36
Infinitives 29, 56, 86 - 90
present and perfect, when to be
used 205
special uses 204
Interrogative sentences 16, 206
Intransitive verbs 59
It, expletive 99
Like 78, 79
Many a 37
Metb ought 250
Modal adverbs 75,76, 77
Mixed sentence 17
Neither 39, 226
Nor 226, 229
Not 77. 185
Not only 210. 238
Numerals 79
Oath 90
Objective element 56
direct object 57
indirect object 60-63
double object 64-67
objective clause 127
or, otherwise 226, 227
ought 47
Participles 43, 47
Phrase 27. 55
Possfssives 50-53
Predicate 10-11
Proposition 9
Quotations . 129
Relative Adverbs 118-123
Relative pronouns 106-118
Rules of Analysis 94 96
Rules of Syntax 92-94
Sentence, defined
simple 17
complex 105
compound 209
Subject 10-11,98, 104
Syntax 9
Than 163
That, conjunction 129. 130
pronominal adjective 38
relative pronoun 107
The, definite article 37
The the 176
There 78 113
Thought, a 9
To. toward, towards Si
Transitive verb 57. 5,
Voice 51
Well 74
Wh at 108
Whence 152
Whether 227
Whither 152
Worth 249, 255
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